The most important objects in the Hebrew Bible are a wooden box, styled in English »the ark« or »... more The most important objects in the Hebrew Bible are a wooden box, styled in English »the ark« or »the ark of the covenant«, and two statues of winged creatures, »the cherubim«, that surmount it. Raanan Eichler attempts to understand these objects using the full gamut of data and tools available to the modern scholar. The study features an abundance of visual comparative material, much of it in colour, with a particularly close examination of the finds from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The author proposes solutions to a number of unsolved puzzles, such as the question of what cherubim looked like, and offers a new explanation of the nature of the ark and the cherubim, rejecting the prevailing scholarly view of them as having constituted an »empty throne« and footstool for the God of Israel. Rather, he argues, they constituted an empty frame, a unique cultic focus that surpassed all known systems in the ancient Near East in the extent of the efforts it represented to prevent an anthropomorphic conception of the deity in a cultic context.
Zeitschrift fur die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2024
There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the hapax legomenon רַפְסֹדוֹת rapsōdôt in 2 Chr... more There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the hapax legomenon רַפְסֹדוֹת rapsōdôt in 2 Chr 2:15 (Eng. 16), although its meaning is agreed to be “rafts, floats.” It is proposed here that the word comes from the phonetically identical Greek word ῥαψῳδία (the ancestor of English rhapsody), which literally means “linked song”. Logs linked together into rafts recalled verses linked together into songs.
The verb נתן ‘to give’ is pointed as hophal eight times in the Bible. The scholarly consensus is ... more The verb נתן ‘to give’ is pointed as hophal eight times in the Bible. The scholarly consensus is that these occurrences were originally intended as qal-passive, and that there was no hophal נתן in original Biblical Hebrew. It is argued here that there was neither hophal nor qal-passive נתן in original Biblical Hebrew: these occurrences were originally intended as qal, their subjects were indefinite, and they were intuitively revocalized as hophal when the third-person singular indefinite subject fell out of use in Hebrew.
Isaiah 49:12 mentions “the land of Sinim.” Gesenius and most nineteenth-century scholars identifi... more Isaiah 49:12 mentions “the land of Sinim.” Gesenius and most nineteenth-century scholars identified this place with China, but virtually all scholars today identify it instead with Aswan (Syene) in southern Egypt. It is argued here, based on the literary context, the wording “the land of [plural gentilic],” and the phonetics of Sinim, that the term means China.
The third colon of Psalm 68,19, ואף סוררים לשכן יה אלהים, literally “And also rebellious ones to ... more The third colon of Psalm 68,19, ואף סוררים לשכן יה אלהים, literally “And also rebellious ones to dwell Yah God”, is incomprehensible. It is proposed here, based on Judg 8,11, that the original text was ואף סוררים לשכני האהלים, meaning “Yes, and prisoners from the nomads”. This conjectured text accords with the focus on prisoners in the verse’s two other cola, with the mention of desert dwellers in the parallel verse 7, and with the geographical setting of the relevant section of the psalm.
Jeremiah 49:38, the penultimate verse in the Bible’s only prophecy against Elam, reads: “Then I s... more Jeremiah 49:38, the penultimate verse in the Bible’s only prophecy against Elam, reads: “Then I shall set my throne in Elam and exterminate king and princes from there—declares YHWH.” It is argued here that the verse has two plausible and quite different meanings, that it was designed to convey both, and that as such it is a deliberately ambiguous oracle.
The throne of Solomon, described in 1 Kgs 10:18-20 and almost identically in 2 Chr 9:17-19, is th... more The throne of Solomon, described in 1 Kgs 10:18-20 and almost identically in 2 Chr 9:17-19, is the main object relating to the visual representation of royalty in the Hebrew Bible. This paper offers a close commentary on the description and considers what type of ancient Near Eastern throne the described object exemplifies, concluding that Solomon's throne is a "biblicized" variant of the Canaanite-Phoenician sphinx throne.
The priestly law of women’s vows (Num 30:2–17), which is well understood overall, contains a thre... more The priestly law of women’s vows (Num 30:2–17), which is well understood overall, contains a three-verse section that poses a multitude of structural and substantive problems (vv. 14-16). The section culminates in the phrase וְנָשָׂא אֶת עֲוֹנָהּ (v. 16b), translated as “he will bear her sin” and understood as presenting the possibility of the woman’s male guardian incurring her guilt. I propose to solve all the problems by assuming that וְנָשָׂא אֶת עֲוֹנָהּ expresses an indefinite subject, a common but underappreciated grammatical phenomenon in Biblical Hebrew, and should be read “her sin will be lifted”. It thus becomes clear that the section is a summary of the pericope and that the phrase in question simply restates what has already been said three times with the words וַה' יִסְלַח לָהּ, “and YHWH will forgive her” (vv. 6, 9, 13): that a woman whose vow was nullified is not culpable for her non-fulfillment of the vow.
In the biblical story of Solomon’s Judgment (1 Kgs 3,16-28), after the question of how the King c... more In the biblical story of Solomon’s Judgment (1 Kgs 3,16-28), after the question of how the King can determine which woman is the true mother, a further question arises: Which woman turned out to be the true mother – the plaintiff or the defendant? This study attempts to do four things: First, confirm that the latter question is a deliberate feature of the story and is thus a meta-riddle that illustrates the biblical authors’ highly sophisticated management of ambiguity. Second, present the interpretation history pertaining to this riddle. Third, solve the riddle. Fourth, show the effect of textual criticism on it.
The biblical hapax legomenon סַנְסִנָּיו (Song 7:9) seems to denote a part of the date palm, but r... more The biblical hapax legomenon סַנְסִנָּיו (Song 7:9) seems to denote a part of the date palm, but readers have disagreed widely on which part. Most scholars today follow Immanuel Löw, who concluded from Syriac and Akkadian cognates that the word denotes the spadices, which are the branched stalks that hold the clusters of flowers and fruit. Eran Viezel has recently argued on morphological grounds that it denotes a “fruit-laden cluster of dates.” It is proposed here that the word denotes the projecting leaf bases that line the trunk of the date palm and that it is cognate with the Arabic word sinsin, “edge of a spinal vertebra,” to which these leaf bases bear a close visual resemblance.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2020
The common noun רְבִיבִים occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (Deut 32:2; Jer 3:3; 14:22; Mic 5:... more The common noun רְבִיבִים occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (Deut 32:2; Jer 3:3; 14:22; Mic 5:6; Pss 65:10[10]; 72:6). Its contexts clearly suggest that it belongs to the semantic domain of rain and dew, and that it denotes something desirable. But further precision has eluded interpreters, and the much-discussed Ugaritic words rbb and rb are of little help in this regard. The apparent Akkadian cognate rabbu A, unmentioned in the standard Biblical Hebrew lexica, is considered here, and it is argued on that basis that the word means “gentle rain” or “drizzle”.
The hapax legomenon זדה has been called the crux of the Shiloaḥ (Siloam) inscription. It is usual... more The hapax legomenon זדה has been called the crux of the Shiloaḥ (Siloam) inscription. It is usually interpreted as ‘fissure, crack, void, cavity, etc’, but sixteen other interpretations have been proposed in the 140 years since the inscription’s discovery. This article argues on contextual and etymological grounds that the lexeme means ‘misalignment’.
This paper seeks to identify a new type of deliberate literary ambiguity in the Hebrew Bible: the... more This paper seeks to identify a new type of deliberate literary ambiguity in the Hebrew Bible: the ambiguous etiology, which is an etiology designed to account for a complex or changing reality by embodying its contradictory aspects in the same statement. The example given to illustrate this type is the Yahwistic Oracle of Rebekah (Gen 25,23), which is clearly an etiology for the relations between Israel and Edom. The final, key clause of this oracle seems to predict which nation will subjugate the other. It is argued that the prediction is complicated by the clause’s containing four independent forms of ambiguity, which are drawn out in the continuation of the Yahwistic narrative. The oracle thus accounts for the continually oscillating power relationship between the two nations.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2019
The common noun šip‘at occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (2Kgs 9:17[x2]; Isa 60:6; Ezek 26:10;... more The common noun šip‘at occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (2Kgs 9:17[x2]; Isa 60:6; Ezek 26:10; Job 22:11; 38:24). Its nearly universal interpretation as “abundance” or “flood", obviously induced by the meanings that the root šp‘ carries in Middle Aramaic and Mishnaic Hebrew, is rejected. It is argued instead that the word means “dust-cloud” in all occurrences, is cognate with Akkadian terms that pertain to darkness and obscuration, and has nothing to do with abundance or flooding. The related biblical common noun šepa‘ (Deut 33:19) is explained in like manner.
It is proposed that the priestly story of Aaron’s flowering staff (Num 17:16–26) is an etiology f... more It is proposed that the priestly story of Aaron’s flowering staff (Num 17:16–26) is an etiology for the asherah in Solomon’s temple (2 Kgs 21:3, 7; 23:4, 6, 7). The staff as described is closely similar both in form and in function to the asherah. This proposition accounts for the absence of hostility towards asherim in the priestly literature, and it generates a solution to the age-old problem of why Moses and Aaron were denied entry into the promised land (Num 20:1–13, 24; 27:14; Deut 32:51).
This paper examines the collocation tōmer miqšâ in Jer 10:5. Previous interpretations of the coll... more This paper examines the collocation tōmer miqšâ in Jer 10:5. Previous interpretations of the collocation are surveyed and shown to be unsatisfactory. It is argued that the term refers to a constructed, intricately shaped, solid object that looks like a date palm, Neo-Assyrian depictions of which are known to scholars as the "Assyrian Sacred Tree".
The ark, the primary cult object in the Hebrew Bible, is described in detail in the Priestly tabe... more The ark, the primary cult object in the Hebrew Bible, is described in detail in the Priestly tabernacle pericopes of the Pentateuch. In these texts, a difficult contradiction arises with regard to its בדים , which are universally understood as carrying poles. The commands for the construction of the ark (Exod 25:10–16) specify that the ark’s carrying poles are to stay in its rings and never to part from it (בטבעת הארן ויהיו הבדים לא יסרו ממנו , v. 15). In the instructions regarding the packing up of the tabernacle (Num 4), however, we read that, in the course of preparing the ark for transport, its carrying poles are to be put in by Aaron and his sons ( ושמו בדיו , v. 6). If the ark’s poles are always “in,” how can they be “put in”? This problem has received a great deal of attention from medieval exegetes and modern scholars. In this article, I review previous proposed solutions and offer a new solution based on material evidence from the ancient Near East.
The cherub is a type of creature mentioned some 90 times in the Hebrew Bible, where it is portray... more The cherub is a type of creature mentioned some 90 times in the Hebrew Bible, where it is portrayed as being closely associated with the God of Israel and serving as the predominant motif in Israelite iconography. This paper surveys the rich history of attempts to determine the form of the cherub, in both textual and iconographic sources, from the fourth century to the twenty-first. The cherub has been interpreted as a winged human (child or adult), a bird, a winged bovine, a griffin, a winged sphinx, and a composite creature in general. The last two identifications, which prevail in contemporary scholarship, are rejected, and a path to a correct identification is proposed.
The most important objects in the Hebrew Bible are a wooden box, styled in English »the ark« or »... more The most important objects in the Hebrew Bible are a wooden box, styled in English »the ark« or »the ark of the covenant«, and two statues of winged creatures, »the cherubim«, that surmount it. Raanan Eichler attempts to understand these objects using the full gamut of data and tools available to the modern scholar. The study features an abundance of visual comparative material, much of it in colour, with a particularly close examination of the finds from the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. The author proposes solutions to a number of unsolved puzzles, such as the question of what cherubim looked like, and offers a new explanation of the nature of the ark and the cherubim, rejecting the prevailing scholarly view of them as having constituted an »empty throne« and footstool for the God of Israel. Rather, he argues, they constituted an empty frame, a unique cultic focus that surpassed all known systems in the ancient Near East in the extent of the efforts it represented to prevent an anthropomorphic conception of the deity in a cultic context.
Zeitschrift fur die Alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2024
There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the hapax legomenon רַפְסֹדוֹת rapsōdôt in 2 Chr... more There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the hapax legomenon רַפְסֹדוֹת rapsōdôt in 2 Chr 2:15 (Eng. 16), although its meaning is agreed to be “rafts, floats.” It is proposed here that the word comes from the phonetically identical Greek word ῥαψῳδία (the ancestor of English rhapsody), which literally means “linked song”. Logs linked together into rafts recalled verses linked together into songs.
The verb נתן ‘to give’ is pointed as hophal eight times in the Bible. The scholarly consensus is ... more The verb נתן ‘to give’ is pointed as hophal eight times in the Bible. The scholarly consensus is that these occurrences were originally intended as qal-passive, and that there was no hophal נתן in original Biblical Hebrew. It is argued here that there was neither hophal nor qal-passive נתן in original Biblical Hebrew: these occurrences were originally intended as qal, their subjects were indefinite, and they were intuitively revocalized as hophal when the third-person singular indefinite subject fell out of use in Hebrew.
Isaiah 49:12 mentions “the land of Sinim.” Gesenius and most nineteenth-century scholars identifi... more Isaiah 49:12 mentions “the land of Sinim.” Gesenius and most nineteenth-century scholars identified this place with China, but virtually all scholars today identify it instead with Aswan (Syene) in southern Egypt. It is argued here, based on the literary context, the wording “the land of [plural gentilic],” and the phonetics of Sinim, that the term means China.
The third colon of Psalm 68,19, ואף סוררים לשכן יה אלהים, literally “And also rebellious ones to ... more The third colon of Psalm 68,19, ואף סוררים לשכן יה אלהים, literally “And also rebellious ones to dwell Yah God”, is incomprehensible. It is proposed here, based on Judg 8,11, that the original text was ואף סוררים לשכני האהלים, meaning “Yes, and prisoners from the nomads”. This conjectured text accords with the focus on prisoners in the verse’s two other cola, with the mention of desert dwellers in the parallel verse 7, and with the geographical setting of the relevant section of the psalm.
Jeremiah 49:38, the penultimate verse in the Bible’s only prophecy against Elam, reads: “Then I s... more Jeremiah 49:38, the penultimate verse in the Bible’s only prophecy against Elam, reads: “Then I shall set my throne in Elam and exterminate king and princes from there—declares YHWH.” It is argued here that the verse has two plausible and quite different meanings, that it was designed to convey both, and that as such it is a deliberately ambiguous oracle.
The throne of Solomon, described in 1 Kgs 10:18-20 and almost identically in 2 Chr 9:17-19, is th... more The throne of Solomon, described in 1 Kgs 10:18-20 and almost identically in 2 Chr 9:17-19, is the main object relating to the visual representation of royalty in the Hebrew Bible. This paper offers a close commentary on the description and considers what type of ancient Near Eastern throne the described object exemplifies, concluding that Solomon's throne is a "biblicized" variant of the Canaanite-Phoenician sphinx throne.
The priestly law of women’s vows (Num 30:2–17), which is well understood overall, contains a thre... more The priestly law of women’s vows (Num 30:2–17), which is well understood overall, contains a three-verse section that poses a multitude of structural and substantive problems (vv. 14-16). The section culminates in the phrase וְנָשָׂא אֶת עֲוֹנָהּ (v. 16b), translated as “he will bear her sin” and understood as presenting the possibility of the woman’s male guardian incurring her guilt. I propose to solve all the problems by assuming that וְנָשָׂא אֶת עֲוֹנָהּ expresses an indefinite subject, a common but underappreciated grammatical phenomenon in Biblical Hebrew, and should be read “her sin will be lifted”. It thus becomes clear that the section is a summary of the pericope and that the phrase in question simply restates what has already been said three times with the words וַה' יִסְלַח לָהּ, “and YHWH will forgive her” (vv. 6, 9, 13): that a woman whose vow was nullified is not culpable for her non-fulfillment of the vow.
In the biblical story of Solomon’s Judgment (1 Kgs 3,16-28), after the question of how the King c... more In the biblical story of Solomon’s Judgment (1 Kgs 3,16-28), after the question of how the King can determine which woman is the true mother, a further question arises: Which woman turned out to be the true mother – the plaintiff or the defendant? This study attempts to do four things: First, confirm that the latter question is a deliberate feature of the story and is thus a meta-riddle that illustrates the biblical authors’ highly sophisticated management of ambiguity. Second, present the interpretation history pertaining to this riddle. Third, solve the riddle. Fourth, show the effect of textual criticism on it.
The biblical hapax legomenon סַנְסִנָּיו (Song 7:9) seems to denote a part of the date palm, but r... more The biblical hapax legomenon סַנְסִנָּיו (Song 7:9) seems to denote a part of the date palm, but readers have disagreed widely on which part. Most scholars today follow Immanuel Löw, who concluded from Syriac and Akkadian cognates that the word denotes the spadices, which are the branched stalks that hold the clusters of flowers and fruit. Eran Viezel has recently argued on morphological grounds that it denotes a “fruit-laden cluster of dates.” It is proposed here that the word denotes the projecting leaf bases that line the trunk of the date palm and that it is cognate with the Arabic word sinsin, “edge of a spinal vertebra,” to which these leaf bases bear a close visual resemblance.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2020
The common noun רְבִיבִים occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (Deut 32:2; Jer 3:3; 14:22; Mic 5:... more The common noun רְבִיבִים occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (Deut 32:2; Jer 3:3; 14:22; Mic 5:6; Pss 65:10[10]; 72:6). Its contexts clearly suggest that it belongs to the semantic domain of rain and dew, and that it denotes something desirable. But further precision has eluded interpreters, and the much-discussed Ugaritic words rbb and rb are of little help in this regard. The apparent Akkadian cognate rabbu A, unmentioned in the standard Biblical Hebrew lexica, is considered here, and it is argued on that basis that the word means “gentle rain” or “drizzle”.
The hapax legomenon זדה has been called the crux of the Shiloaḥ (Siloam) inscription. It is usual... more The hapax legomenon זדה has been called the crux of the Shiloaḥ (Siloam) inscription. It is usually interpreted as ‘fissure, crack, void, cavity, etc’, but sixteen other interpretations have been proposed in the 140 years since the inscription’s discovery. This article argues on contextual and etymological grounds that the lexeme means ‘misalignment’.
This paper seeks to identify a new type of deliberate literary ambiguity in the Hebrew Bible: the... more This paper seeks to identify a new type of deliberate literary ambiguity in the Hebrew Bible: the ambiguous etiology, which is an etiology designed to account for a complex or changing reality by embodying its contradictory aspects in the same statement. The example given to illustrate this type is the Yahwistic Oracle of Rebekah (Gen 25,23), which is clearly an etiology for the relations between Israel and Edom. The final, key clause of this oracle seems to predict which nation will subjugate the other. It is argued that the prediction is complicated by the clause’s containing four independent forms of ambiguity, which are drawn out in the continuation of the Yahwistic narrative. The oracle thus accounts for the continually oscillating power relationship between the two nations.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft, 2019
The common noun šip‘at occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (2Kgs 9:17[x2]; Isa 60:6; Ezek 26:10;... more The common noun šip‘at occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (2Kgs 9:17[x2]; Isa 60:6; Ezek 26:10; Job 22:11; 38:24). Its nearly universal interpretation as “abundance” or “flood", obviously induced by the meanings that the root šp‘ carries in Middle Aramaic and Mishnaic Hebrew, is rejected. It is argued instead that the word means “dust-cloud” in all occurrences, is cognate with Akkadian terms that pertain to darkness and obscuration, and has nothing to do with abundance or flooding. The related biblical common noun šepa‘ (Deut 33:19) is explained in like manner.
It is proposed that the priestly story of Aaron’s flowering staff (Num 17:16–26) is an etiology f... more It is proposed that the priestly story of Aaron’s flowering staff (Num 17:16–26) is an etiology for the asherah in Solomon’s temple (2 Kgs 21:3, 7; 23:4, 6, 7). The staff as described is closely similar both in form and in function to the asherah. This proposition accounts for the absence of hostility towards asherim in the priestly literature, and it generates a solution to the age-old problem of why Moses and Aaron were denied entry into the promised land (Num 20:1–13, 24; 27:14; Deut 32:51).
This paper examines the collocation tōmer miqšâ in Jer 10:5. Previous interpretations of the coll... more This paper examines the collocation tōmer miqšâ in Jer 10:5. Previous interpretations of the collocation are surveyed and shown to be unsatisfactory. It is argued that the term refers to a constructed, intricately shaped, solid object that looks like a date palm, Neo-Assyrian depictions of which are known to scholars as the "Assyrian Sacred Tree".
The ark, the primary cult object in the Hebrew Bible, is described in detail in the Priestly tabe... more The ark, the primary cult object in the Hebrew Bible, is described in detail in the Priestly tabernacle pericopes of the Pentateuch. In these texts, a difficult contradiction arises with regard to its בדים , which are universally understood as carrying poles. The commands for the construction of the ark (Exod 25:10–16) specify that the ark’s carrying poles are to stay in its rings and never to part from it (בטבעת הארן ויהיו הבדים לא יסרו ממנו , v. 15). In the instructions regarding the packing up of the tabernacle (Num 4), however, we read that, in the course of preparing the ark for transport, its carrying poles are to be put in by Aaron and his sons ( ושמו בדיו , v. 6). If the ark’s poles are always “in,” how can they be “put in”? This problem has received a great deal of attention from medieval exegetes and modern scholars. In this article, I review previous proposed solutions and offer a new solution based on material evidence from the ancient Near East.
The cherub is a type of creature mentioned some 90 times in the Hebrew Bible, where it is portray... more The cherub is a type of creature mentioned some 90 times in the Hebrew Bible, where it is portrayed as being closely associated with the God of Israel and serving as the predominant motif in Israelite iconography. This paper surveys the rich history of attempts to determine the form of the cherub, in both textual and iconographic sources, from the fourth century to the twenty-first. The cherub has been interpreted as a winged human (child or adult), a bird, a winged bovine, a griffin, a winged sphinx, and a composite creature in general. The last two identifications, which prevail in contemporary scholarship, are rejected, and a path to a correct identification is proposed.
In three instances in the Hebrew Bible, in two separate contexts, we find the word pa‘ămōtāyw den... more In three instances in the Hebrew Bible, in two separate contexts, we find the word pa‘ămōtāyw denoting parts of an item of furniture. In all three instances, the most attractive interpretation of the word is ‘its feet’, which would mean short projections at the bottom of the object that bear its weight. However, there has been a surprising reluctance among translators and commentators to understand the word in this sense. In this paper, the various alternative interpretations of the word will be surveyed and the reason for this reluctance will be investigated. It will be argued that this reason is invalid and that ‘its feet’ is the correct understanding.
Genesis 3:24, the final verse in the Eden Narrative, states that God stationed “the cherubim and ... more Genesis 3:24, the final verse in the Eden Narrative, states that God stationed “the cherubim and the spinning-sword-flame” east of the garden of Eden, from which he had recently expelled Man. Or so it does in its masoretic version. Four Targumim, however, reflect an ancient, divergent vocalization of the verse’s fourth word. In this vocalization, the verse must be read as stating that God himself settled east of the garden. This divergence profoundly affects the meaning of the entire Eden Narrative. The targumic reading is grammatically and stylistically sound, and, conceptually, it fits well in the verse’s textual setting. Moreover, a deliberate alteration from it to the masoretic reading would fall squarely into an independently identified pattern of theologically-driven changes in vocalization. The targumic reading may therefore be closest to the original authorial intent.
The Torah tells two different stories of the creation of the human race. The first (Genesis 1:1–2... more The Torah tells two different stories of the creation of the human race. The first (Genesis 1:1–2:3) emphasizes the parity of men and women and their equal share in the image of God, which is their essential attribute (1:27; 5:1b–2). The conventional view is that the second creation story (Genesis 2:4–3:24), the “Eden Narrative,” presents the sexes as unequal. In the standard reading, here the man is the important figure, while the woman is only his subordinate “helper” (2:18–20). She is fashioned from his rib (2:21–23), meaning that he is the whole and she only a part. And at the end of the story, God himself stipulates that woman’s destiny to be controlled by the man (3:16). The present article shows that this perception of the story is mistaken and that a careful and closer reading uncovers a view of the sexes that—in the account’s own nuanced and psychologically sensitive way—is fundamentally egalitarian.
The ark of the covenant was, according to the Hebrew Bible, a portable wooden chest that occupied... more The ark of the covenant was, according to the Hebrew Bible, a portable wooden chest that occupied a central position in ancient Israelite worship. The various biblical passages pertaining to the ark indicate that it was thought by their authors to contain the documentation of a covenant between the Israelites and their deity YHWH, to mark that deity’s presence, and to have been located in the holiest part of the wilderness tabernacle and later of Solomon’s temple in Jerusalem. As the most important object in the Hebrew Bible, the ark of the covenant has played various roles in both Jewish and Christian traditions. This article will discuss selected aspects of the ark in which there was significant influence in one or both directions between the two traditions or in which both traditions display similar tendencies.
Sections:
Introduction,
General Treatments,
Form,
Contents,
Function and Parallels,
Kappore... more Sections:
Introduction,
General Treatments,
Form,
Contents,
Function and Parallels,
Kapporet,
Cherubim,
History,
Ark Narrative,
Chronicles,
Post-biblical Sources.
A casual reading of the Hebrew Bible creates the impression that the most important cultic object... more A casual reading of the Hebrew Bible creates the impression that the most important cultic objects in ancient Israel, those which constituted the focal point of all Israelite worship deemed proper by the biblical authors, were a certain wooden container whose basic name was הָאָרוֹן, conventionally styled in English “the ark” or “the ark of the covenant”, along with two sculptures of winged creatures, called הַכְּרוּבִים, “the cherubim”, which were situated close to it. My dissertation is an attempt to comprehensively explain these objects through analysis of the relevant biblical passages and of their ancient Near Eastern context as reflected in the material, iconographic, and epigraphic data. A particularly rich source of data used in the study is the fourteenth-century BCE tomb of Tutankhamun, which contains dozens of well-preserved wooden boxes that constitute close parallels to the ark.
This study overturns the prevailing scholarly view of the cherubim and the ark, according to which they constituted respectively an “empty throne” and footstool for the God of Israel. It is shown that, on the contrary, nowhere in the Bible are these cherubim said to have constituted a throne, and nowhere is the ark described as a footstool. Rather, these objects are consistently and exclusively portrayed in the Bible as having formed an “empty space” for the deity, the ark serving as the marker of a modally undefined divine presence, and the cherubim framing the location of the presence with their outstretched wings. It follows that the cultic focus endorsed by the Hebrew Bible was not merely unusual for its time, like the empty throne, but unique: it surpassed all known systems in the ancient Near East in abstraction and in the extent of the efforts it represented to prevent an anthropomorphic conception of the deity in a cultic context.
Additionally, the study generates answers to a host of long-debated questions. Chief among these is perhaps the question of what cherubim looked like. According to the dominant view today, they were winged sphinxes (i.e., winged, human-headed lions). However, it is shown in this study that cherubim were upright creatures and therefore could not have been winged sphinxes; rather, they were probably winged humans. The various technical terms and details in the descriptions of the ark are also clarified. For example, the ark’s golden זֵר should be identified as a cavetto cornice; its four פְּעָמוֹת should be interpreted as feet; and its two צְלָעוֹת are probably its lateral sides. Its rings should be seen as being set on its underside, probably aligned with its long sides, and as holding four – not two – carrying poles. A contradiction between two priestly verses, one saying that the ark’s poles are never to part from it (לֹא יָסֻרוּ מִמֶּנּוּ), the other stating that its poles are to be “put in” (וְשָׂמוּ) at regular times, can be resolved by assuming that the poles, like those of some ancient Egyptian chests, are retractable.
During the course of this process, it is shown that there is a complete absence of disagreement among the biblical texts regarding the form of the ark and the cherubim, despite vastly different operative premises among their authors, suggesting that these were real historical objects whose concrete form was well-known and could not be denied. It is also shown that there exist ancient Near Eastern parallels to virtually every one of the formal details of the ark and the cherubim, demonstrating that the traditions embodied by the biblical texts that describe these objects are native and natural to this region and era.
Substantial portions of the Hebrew Bible are devoted to the physical description of sacred object... more Substantial portions of the Hebrew Bible are devoted to the physical description of sacred objects and structures. These descriptions are the primary means by which the biblical authors, who do not tend towards abstract theological discourse, express their views of the religious world of ancient Israel, and thus they constitute our most important window into this world. However, these texts are characterized by an abundance of specialized terms and linguistic conventions, mostly lost to us, that have rendered them enigmatic. Recent research has shown that material finds from ancient Egypt and elsewhere in the Near East can help us understand these texts. To fully exploit the explanatory potential of these data, our group will bring together scholars of biblical and cognate texts with those who specialize in material and pictorial remains from ancient Egypt, Israel, and neighboring areas.
"On May 10th, Dr. Raanan Eichler of Harvard University delivered a lecture on the Ark of the Cove... more "On May 10th, Dr. Raanan Eichler of Harvard University delivered a lecture on the Ark of the Covenant in its Ancient Near Eastern context sponsored by Revel and the Center for Israel Studies. Dr. Eichler’s presentation, replete with images of archaeological finds and medieval illuminations, brought the Ark to life for the audience as never before."
"If your idea of a good time is hearing someone explain at length the connections between the tre... more "If your idea of a good time is hearing someone explain at length the connections between the treasures of King Tut’s tomb and the biblical ark of the covenant, you should have been in Boston last week for the annual convention of the Association of Jewish Studies. [...] The conversation about the ark and the pharaoh came late Sunday night, at a reception following a long day of presentations. The enthusiastic explainer was Raanan Eichler, who is doing postdoctoral research at Harvard."
The story of Aaron’s staff reads like an etiological tale, explaining a holy object in the Temple... more The story of Aaron’s staff reads like an etiological tale, explaining a holy object in the Temple. The description of the object as a stylized tree suggests a connection with the asherah, a ritual object forbidden by Deuteronomy.
A warrior and prophetess, she's the only woman in the Hebrew Bible with hard political power who ... more A warrior and prophetess, she's the only woman in the Hebrew Bible with hard political power who is portrayed positively.
Four Aramaic targumim (ancient translations) have God, and not just cherubim, taking up residence... more Four Aramaic targumim (ancient translations) have God, and not just cherubim, taking up residence east of the garden. This is based on a slightly different vocalization of the Hebrew text, which is likely a more original reading than our current biblical text (MT).
The description of what is to be done with the ark’s carrying poles (בַּדִּים) seems to differ be... more The description of what is to be done with the ark’s carrying poles (בַּדִּים) seems to differ between Exodus ch. 25 and Numbers 4. Medieval Jewish commentators offered many different solutions to this contradiction, but the best answer lies in what we learn from the construction of ancient Egyptian portable chests
How the mistaken exchange of the letter gimel for a waw corrupted the meaning of a key verse in R... more How the mistaken exchange of the letter gimel for a waw corrupted the meaning of a key verse in Ruth and obscures the point of the story
A rigorous reading of the second creation account in Genesis shows that it expresses, like the fi... more A rigorous reading of the second creation account in Genesis shows that it expresses, like the first creation account but in its own nuanced and psychologically sensitive way, an egalitarian view of the sexes.
This online guide is meant to be an accompaniment to, or a replacement for, a "Bibliographical Gu... more This online guide is meant to be an accompaniment to, or a replacement for, a "Bibliographical Guidance" course for Hebrew-speaking students of Biblical Studies.
The only species of poplar native to Erets Israel is the Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica), w... more The only species of poplar native to Erets Israel is the Euphrates poplar (Populus euphratica), where archaeological evidence suggests that its wood was used in the biblical era. The tree grows on stream banks, especially in the southern coastal plain, the central Negev, and the Jordan valley (Liphschitz/Biger: 120–2). Several biblical terms have been identified with the poplar, none by consensus. The libneh (Gen 30:37; Hos 4:13; conjectured elsewhere in place of lĕbānôn) is portrayed as a tree that grows in Syria and the hills of Erets Israel, has white sapwood, and provides pleasant shade.
Isaiah 49:12 mentions “the land of Sinim.” Gesenius and most nineteenth-century scholars identifi... more Isaiah 49:12 mentions “the land of Sinim.” Gesenius and most nineteenth-century scholars identified this place with China, but virtually all scholars today identify it instead with Aswan (Syene) in southern Egypt. It is argued here, based on the literary context, the wording “the land of [plural gentilic],” and the phonetics of Sinim, that the term means China.
The hapax legomenon פַּנַּג pannag is mentioned in Ezekiel as an export of the land of Israel to ... more The hapax legomenon פַּנַּג pannag is mentioned in Ezekiel as an export of the land of Israel to the international market in Tyre (Ezek 27:17). It has been interpreted in wildly different ways, with the dominant view now being that it is a kind of baked good or flour. A few scholars have noted Greek πάνακες "allheal" as an apparent cognate, but they have not realized its significance. It is argued here that Hebrew pannag and Akkadian pinigu derive from Greek πάνακες and denote a medicinal product of the Ferula (giant fennel) plant or of a related genus.
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
The common noun רְבִיבִים occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (Deut 32:2; Jer 3:3; 14:22; Mic 5:... more The common noun רְבִיבִים occurs six times in the Hebrew Bible (Deut 32:2; Jer 3:3; 14:22; Mic 5:6; Pss 65:10[10]; 72:6). Its contexts clearly suggest that it belongs to the semantic domain of rain and dew, and that it denotes something desirable. But further precision has eluded interpreters, and the much-discussed Ugaritic words rbb and rb are of little help in this regard. The apparent Akkadian cognate rabbu A, unmentioned in the standard Biblical Hebrew lexica, is considered here, and it is argued on that basis that the word means “gentle rain” or “drizzle.”
Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
Zusammenfassung Das Nomen šip’at kommt sechs Mal in der Hebräischen Bibel vor: II Reg 9,17 (2x); ... more Zusammenfassung Das Nomen šip’at kommt sechs Mal in der Hebräischen Bibel vor: II Reg 9,17 (2x); Jes 60,6; Ez 26,10; Hi 22,11; 38,24. Die vorherrschende Meinung gibt die Wurzel mit »Überfluss« oder »Flut« wieder und folgt damit offensichtlicherweise der Bedeutung, die die Wurzel šp‘ im Mittel-Aramäischen und im Mischnah Hebräisch hat. Diese Übersetzung wird hier abgelehnt. Stattdessen wird dafür plädiert, dass bei allen Vorkommen das Wort »Staubwolke« bedeutet und verwandt ist mit akkadischen Wörter, die zum Bedeutungsspektrum »Dunkelheit« und »Verdunkelung« gehören. Das verwandte, biblische Nomen šœpa‘ aus Dtn 33,19 wird ebenso hergeleitet.
Jeremiah 10:5 contains the collocation tomær miqšāh, which has been interpreted in a variety of w... more Jeremiah 10:5 contains the collocation tomær miqšāh, which has been interpreted in a variety of ways ranging from “scarecrow in a cucumber field” to “plated pillars”. It is argued that the collocation should rather be interpreted as “palm sculpture” and that it refers to a known type of object from the ancient Near East whose depictions are designated by scholars as the “Assyrian sacred tree”.
The ark, the primary cult object in the Hebrew Bible, is described in detail in the Priestly tabe... more The ark, the primary cult object in the Hebrew Bible, is described in detail in the Priestly tabernacle pericopes of the Pentateuch. In these texts, a difficult contradiction arises with regard to its בדים , which are universally understood as carrying poles. The commands for the construction of the ark (Exod 25:10–16) specify that the ark’s carrying poles are to stay in its rings and never to part from it בטבעת הארן ויהיו הבדים לא יסרו ממנו) , v. 15). In the instructions regarding the packing up of the tabernacle (Num 4), however, we read that, in the course of preparing the ark for transport, its carrying poles are to be put in by Aaron and his sons ( ושמו בדיו , v. 6). If the ark’s poles are always “in,” how can they be “put in”? This problem has received a great deal of attention from medieval exegetes and modern scholars. In this article, I review previous proposed solutions and offer a new solution based on material evidence from the ancient Near East.
In three instances in the Hebrew Bible, in two separate contexts, we find the word pa‘ămōtāyw den... more In three instances in the Hebrew Bible, in two separate contexts, we find the word pa‘ămōtāyw denoting parts of an item of furniture. In all three instances, the most attractive interpretation of the word is ‘its feet’, which would mean short projections at the bottom of the object that bear its weight. However, there has been a surprising reluctance among translators and commentators to understand the word in this sense. In this paper, the various alternative interpretations of the word will be surveyed and the reason for this reluctance will be investigated. It will be argued that this reason is invalid and that ‘its feet’ is the correct understanding.
Genesis 3:24, the final verse in the Eden Narrative, states that God stationed “the cherubim and ... more Genesis 3:24, the final verse in the Eden Narrative, states that God stationed “the cherubim and the spinning-sword-flame” east of the garden of Eden, from which he had recently expelled Man. Or so it does in its masoretic version. Four Targumim, however, reflect an ancient, divergent vocalization of the verse’s fourth word. In this vocalization, the verse must be read as stating that God himself settled east of the garden. This divergence profoundly affects the meaning of the entire Eden Narrative. The targumic reading is grammatically and stylistically sound, and, conceptually, it fits well in the verse’s textual setting. Moreover, a deliberate alteration from it to the masoretic reading would fall squarely into an independently identified pattern of theologically-driven changes in vocalization. The targumic reading may therefore be closest to the original authorial intent.
Genesis 3:24, the final verse in the Eden Narrative, states that God stationed “the cherubim and ... more Genesis 3:24, the final verse in the Eden Narrative, states that God stationed “the cherubim and the spinning-sword-flame” east of the garden of Eden, from which he had recently expelled Man. Or so it does in its masoretic version. Four Targumim, however, reflect an ancient, divergent vocalization of the verse’s fourth word. In this vocalization, the verse must be read as stating that God himself settled east of the garden. This divergence profoundly affects the meaning of the entire Eden Narrative. The targumic reading is grammatically and stylistically sound, and, conceptually, it fits well in the verse’s textual setting. Moreover, a deliberate alteration from it to the masoretic reading would fall squarely into an independently identified pattern of theologically-driven changes in vocalization. The targumic reading may therefore be closest to the original authorial intent.
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stipulates that woman’s destiny to be controlled by the man (3:16). The present article shows that this perception of the story is mistaken and that a careful and closer reading uncovers a view of the sexes that—in the account’s own nuanced and psychologically sensitive way—is fundamentally egalitarian.
Introduction,
General Treatments,
Form,
Contents,
Function and Parallels,
Kapporet,
Cherubim,
History,
Ark Narrative,
Chronicles,
Post-biblical Sources.
This study overturns the prevailing scholarly view of the cherubim and the ark, according to which they constituted respectively an “empty throne” and footstool for the God of Israel. It is shown that, on the contrary, nowhere in the Bible are these cherubim said to have constituted a throne, and nowhere is the ark described as a footstool. Rather, these objects are consistently and exclusively portrayed in the Bible as having formed an “empty space” for the deity, the ark serving as the marker of a modally undefined divine presence, and the cherubim framing the location of the presence with their outstretched wings. It follows that the cultic focus endorsed by the Hebrew Bible was not merely unusual for its time, like the empty throne, but unique: it surpassed all known systems in the ancient Near East in abstraction and in the extent of the efforts it represented to prevent an anthropomorphic conception of the deity in a cultic context.
Additionally, the study generates answers to a host of long-debated questions. Chief among these is perhaps the question of what cherubim looked like. According to the dominant view today, they were winged sphinxes (i.e., winged, human-headed lions). However, it is shown in this study that cherubim were upright creatures and therefore could not have been winged sphinxes; rather, they were probably winged humans. The various technical terms and details in the descriptions of the ark are also clarified. For example, the ark’s golden זֵר should be identified as a cavetto cornice; its four פְּעָמוֹת should be interpreted as feet; and its two צְלָעוֹת are probably its lateral sides. Its rings should be seen as being set on its underside, probably aligned with its long sides, and as holding four – not two – carrying poles. A contradiction between two priestly verses, one saying that the ark’s poles are never to part from it (לֹא יָסֻרוּ מִמֶּנּוּ), the other stating that its poles are to be “put in” (וְשָׂמוּ) at regular times, can be resolved by assuming that the poles, like those of some ancient Egyptian chests, are retractable.
During the course of this process, it is shown that there is a complete absence of disagreement among the biblical texts regarding the form of the ark and the cherubim, despite vastly different operative premises among their authors, suggesting that these were real historical objects whose concrete form was well-known and could not be denied. It is also shown that there exist ancient Near Eastern parallels to virtually every one of the formal details of the ark and the cherubim, demonstrating that the traditions embodied by the biblical texts that describe these objects are native and natural to this region and era.