Samuele Rocca

This contribution is dedicated to the analysis of the text of a treaty of alliance between the Roman Republic and Queen Salome Alexandra handed down by Josippon, a Jewish historian who lived in southern Italy in the century, but not mentioned by Flavius Josephus. There are several manuscript versions of the Hebrew text. While the version edited by David Flusser as well as its English translation by Steven B. Bowman, mention a treaty concluded between the Hasmonean sovereign and the Roman Republic in 69 BC, the version edited by Rav Haym Hominer mentions a treaty concluded in 67 BC, two years after the end of the conflict. It is probably the same treatise, and Flusser and Bowman's version must be preferred to Hominer's. Furthermore, a careful analysis of the text demonstrates that the treaty is probably truthful, and that Salome Alexandra renewed the treaty of alliance with Rome probably on the eve of Tigranes' invasion. This alliance treaty demonstrates that the campaign led by Lucullus was coordinated with the diplomatic and probably military action of the queen of Judea against Tigranes II. In conclusion, Flavius Josephus did not bother to mention this treatise for two reasons. First of all, his antipathy towards Salome Alexandra, perceived as responsible for the civil war between sons and heirs Hyrcanus II and Aristobulus II. Furthermore, this alliance treaty, renewed a few years before Pompey's invasion, would have put the latter in a bad light.

This article will analyze the evolution of the relationship between the Roman Republic and the Hasmonean state from its earliest beginnings, somewhere between 174 B.C.E. and 161 B.C.E. The main purpose of this article is to follow the development of the relationship between the two states from the Roman perspective; the Hasmonean point of view, which is no less important, will be discussed elsewhere. The article is divided into two main parts. The first, introductory section will analyze the current state of research on Roman Imperialism in the East, on the main discussing the theories postulated by Badian, developed further by Harris and Sherwin-White, and of course the position of Gruen, arguing that the main thrust of Roman foreign policy in the Hellenistic East was to weaken the larger states in the East, which were perceived as a threat to the security of Rome. The second and main part of the article will follow the development of the relationship between the Roman Republic and the Hasmoneans chronologically over four main periods: from that of Judah Maccabeus till that of the first Hasmonean rulers, Simon and John Hyrcanus; and those of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra, respectively, ending with the fall of the Hasmonean state by the hands of Pompey. This section will analyze first how and why the Roman Republic decided to support the rebellion of the Maccabees against the Seleucid overlords. Then this section also discusses the evolution of the relationship between the Roman Republic and the Hasmonean state during a period that has not been so well documented, when Judaea was ruled first by King Alexander Jannaeus and then by his wife Salome Alexandra, either from the Roman or Hasmonean point of view. The main question, discussed by various scholars such as Rappaport and Pucci Ben Zeev, is whether or not the Hasmonean state shifted its foreign policy in the direction of an alliance and friendship with the Roman Republic, or whether it chose instead the friendship of geographically closer powers, such as Parthia as well as Pontus, under the rule of Mithridates VI. It seems to me—through a careful reading of Josephus’s Antiquities, Strabo, Plutarch, and the Book of Judith—that Hasmonean Judaea did not commit any hostile acts towards the Roman Republic, such as siding with her enemies, but, on the contrary, that the Roman Republic and the Hasmonean kingdom shared the same adversaries as the Roman Republic, such as Mithridates VI of Pontus and Tigranes II of Armenia. I shall conclude with an analysis of Pompey’s conquest of the Hasmonean state. By then Hasmonean Judaea had become a local power that was possibly perceived as a veiled threat by the Roman Republic, just as the Seleucid kingdom had once been. Besides, Pompey had good personal reasons for acting as he did against a state that was still officially socius et amicus populi Romani.

The main purpose of this essay is to analyze the evolution of the relationship between the Hasmonean state and the Roman Republic. The first part of the essay shall discuss the beginning of the relationship between the two countries, from the last years of Judah the Maccabee to the early years of John Hyrcanus I’s rule. In this section I shall argue for a quite positive perception of the Roman Republic in Hasmonean Judaea. The second part of the essay shall discuss the evolution of this relationship from the last years of John Hyrcanus I’s rule to the reign of Queen Salome Alexandra. In this part, I shall argue that the Hasmonean state did not shift its foreign policy, as argued by Rappaport and Pucci Ben Ze’ev, but that the friendship between the two countries continued. In the third and final part of the essay, I shall discuss the last years of the Hasmonean state in light of Pompey’s conquest. By now, quite understandably, after Pompey’s conquest, the perception of Rome, mainly filtered through the figure of Pompey, was significantly altered. The Psalms of Solomon, as well as Pesher Nahum and Pesher Habbakkuk in the Dead Sea Scrolls, depict the Gentiles or the “Kittim” as the Divine instrument to punish the Hasmonean rulers. Thus, at this juncture in time, the Romans are seen in a negative light.

The main contribution of this book is that it tries to determine how the Jews answered the challenges of Roman society. Thus, the book presents a refreshing approach to the nature of the Roman attitude toward Judaism and the Jews. In addition, it provides the rst detailed examination of the demography and geography of the Jewish communities in Roman Italy. The book also o fers a new look at the legal standing of the Jewish communitarian organization. Last but not least, this study also addresses the various facets of the culture of the Jews living in Roman Italy. Readership Universities and colleges; academic and community libraries; scholars specializing in Jewish history and/or religion, Roman history (especially epigraphy) and/or religion; undergraduate and graduate students in Classics, history, or religion. For more information see brill.com

The main contribution of this book is that it tries to determine how the Jews answered the challenges of Roman society. Thus, the book presents a refreshing approach to the nature of the Roman attitude toward Judaism and the Jews. In addition, it provides the rst detailed examination of the demography and geography of the Jewish communities in Roman Italy. The book also o fers a new look at the legal standing of the Jewish communitarian organization. Last but not least, this study also addresses the various facets of the culture of the Jews living in Roman Italy. Readership Universities and colleges; academic and community libraries; scholars specializing in Jewish history and/or religion, Roman history (especially epigraphy) and/or religion; undergraduate and graduate students in Classics, history, or religion. For more information see brill.com

The purpose of this paper is to examine the attitude of the authorship of the Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum towards the Roman Empire. It seems that the primary composition of the Collatio ought to be attributed to Jewish hands, and that the main character of the work was apologetic, to establish the primacy of Mosaic Law on Roman law. While the first redaction of the Collatio probably dates to the days of Diocletian, and its primary audience was, on the main, Jewish and Pagan, yet, the message of the Collatio continued to assume a tangible value all along the fourth century, when the Roman Empire became Christian. Thus, the work was partially rewritten to fit in the new sociopolitical conditions. Probably, by then, the audience mirrored this change. Through an analysis of the first chapter, or titulus, it is possible to throw light on the diachronic vision of the past, present, and future of Rome uphold by the Jewish author of the Collatio. The image of the past and the pre...

This article will analyze the evolution of the relationship between the Roman Republic and the Hasmonean state from its earliest beginnings, somewhere between 174 B.C.E. and 161 B.C.E. The main purpose of this article is to follow the development of the relationship between the two states from the Roman perspective; the Hasmonean point of view, which is no less important, will be discussed elsewhere. The article is divided into two main parts. The first, introductory section will analyze the current state of research on Roman Imperialism in the East, on the main discussing the theories postulated by Badian, developed further by Harris and Sherwin-White, and of course the position of Gruen, arguing that the main thrust of Roman foreign policy in the Hellenistic East was to weaken the larger states in the East, which were perceived as a threat to the security of Rome. The second and main part of the article will follow the development of the relationship between the Roman Republic and the Hasmoneans chronologically over four main periods: from that of Judah Maccabeus till that of the first Hasmonean rulers, Simon and John Hyrcanus; and those of Alexander Jannaeus and Salome Alexandra, respectively, ending with the fall of the Hasmonean state by the hands of Pompey. This section will analyze first how and why the Roman Republic decided to support the rebellion of the Maccabees against the Seleucid overlords. Then this section also discusses the evolution of the relationship between the Roman Republic and the Hasmonean state during a period that has not been so well documented, when Judaea was ruled first by King Alexander Jannaeus and then by his wife Salome Alexandra, either from the Roman or Hasmonean point of view. The main question, discussed by various scholars such as Rappaport and Pucci Ben Zeev, is whether or not the Hasmonean state shifted its foreign policy in the direction of an alliance and friendship with the Roman Republic, or whether it chose instead the friendship of geographically closer powers, such as Parthia as well as Pontus, under the rule of Mithridates VI. It seems to me—through a careful reading of Josephus’s Antiquities, Strabo, Plutarch, and the Book of Judith—that Hasmonean Judaea did not commit any hostile acts towards the Roman Republic, such as siding with her enemies, but, on the contrary, that the Roman Republic and the Hasmonean kingdom shared the same adversaries as the Roman Republic, such as Mithridates VI of Pontus and Tigranes II of Armenia. I shall conclude with an analysis of Pompey’s conquest of the Hasmonean state. By then Hasmonean Judaea had become a local power that was possibly perceived as a veiled threat by the Roman Republic, just as the Seleucid kingdom had once been. Besides, Pompey had good personal reasons for acting as he did against a state that was still officially socius et amicus populi Romani.

Questo articolo trova la sua origine in una conferenza che ho avuto l’onore di tenere in occasione della presentazione di Ebraismo e Diritto 1, organizzata dalla Facolta di Giurisprudenza, all’Universita Ebraica di Gerusalemme, il 28 aprile 2010 2. Il doppio volume consiste in una serie di articoli di Alfredo Mordechai Rabello: in questa recensione, vorrei tuttavia discutere solamente una piccola parte dell’immenso contributo di Rabello allo studio della storia del popolo ebraico, del diritto romano e di vari argomenti giuridici contemporanei nell’Israele di oggi, analizzati in profondita e discussi nel volume. In questa recensione verranno quindi esaminati solamente alcuni articoli, che ho utilizzato durante le mie ricerche. Come spieghero in seguito, ciascuno di questi articoli rappresenta un contributo molto importante non solamente per lo studio della storia del popolo ebraico nell’antichita classica, ma anche per lo studio e la comprensione di varie sfaccettature del diritto ro...

The main purpose of this essay is to analyze the evolution of the relationship between the Hasmonean state and the Roman Republic. The first part of the essay shall discuss the beginning of the relationship between the two countries, from the last years of Judah the Maccabee to the early years of John Hyrcanus I’s rule. In this section I shall argue for a quite positive perception of the Roman Republic in Hasmonean Judaea. The second part of the essay shall discuss the evolution of this relationship from the last years of John Hyrcanus I’s rule to the reign of Queen Salome Alexandra. In this part, I shall argue that the Hasmonean state did not shift its foreign policy, as argued by Rappaport and Pucci Ben Ze’ev, but that the friendship between the two countries continued. In the third and final part of the essay, I shall discuss the last years of the Hasmonean state in light of Pompey’s conquest. By now, quite understandably, after Pompey’s conquest, the perception of Rome, mainly filtered through the figure of Pompey, was significantly altered. The Psalms of Solomon, as well as Pesher Nahum and Pesher Habbakkuk in the Dead Sea Scrolls, depict the Gentiles or the “Kittim” as the Divine instrument to punish the Hasmonean rulers. Thus, at this juncture in time, the Romans are seen in a negative light.

Iura & Legal Systems – ISSN 2385-2445 2017, B(1): 1-36 Università degli Studi di Salerno 35 Lo scopo di questo articolo è quello di esaminare l'atteggiamento dell’autore della Collatio Legum Mosaicarum et Romanarum nei confronti dell’Impero Romano. È probabile che la composizione della Collatio debba essere attribuita ad un ebreo, che probabilmente visse a Roma, nel periodo che va dall’avvento della tetrarchia al regno di Costantino il Grande. Lo scopo primario dell’opera è apologetico, e cioè stabilire il primato della Legge mosaica sul diritto romano. Quindi, la stesura primaria della Collatio risale probabilmente ai tempi di Diocleziano. Il pubblico a cui l’opera si rivolgeva può essere identificato con l’élite delle comunità ebraiche sparse nell’occidente latino, ed in un uditorio legato al mondo pagano. Tuttavia, lo scopo apologetico della Collatio ha perdurato per tutto il quarto secolo, periodo in cui l’impero romano ha assunto le forme di uno stato cristiano. Così, l’ope...

Introduction This paper explores some of the key dimensions of emerging Crusaders heritage tourism in the Holy Land. While this development has been researched in Jerusalem and Acre (Cohen-Hattab & Shoval, 2014; Shoval, 2013; Boas, 2001) nobody to date has researched the very different development of Crusaders heritage injudea and Samaria. The paper seeks to redress this imbalance. According to our research, in those days Judaea and Samaria was perceived as an area of great importance, with a significant influence on economic life in the 11th to 13th centuries--during which period the Holy Land was ruled by the Crusaders. At that time, Judaea and Samaria had numerous cities and rural villages with defense-based and/or religious-based castles and fortresses. Several groups competed for the same land-farmsteads, military orders and churches, which led to a sharp increase in the price of land. Agriculture and the manufacturing industry also developed and thrived throughout Judaea and S...

It is interesting that, on the contrary, the Book of Esther indeed became part of the Jewish canon. In fact the Book of Judith does not describe the origin of H anukkah, but a previous more ancient event, albeit completely imaginary. The connection with H anukkah is later and indirect. However, on the contrary, the Book of Esther is dedicated to events intimately connected with the Feast of Purim, which the book establishes. There are many parallels with the Book of Esther. Both are heroines who save the Jewish people, albeit in a different manner, with a different character, and a different social standing. Also their area of action is different. Esther acts inside the Royal Palace of Susa, one of the capitals of the Persian Empire, Judith acts in the village of Bethulia, somewhere in the Land of Israel. Still with all these parallels the Book of Esther was canonized, and the Book of Judith was not. According to the Sages it was written too late, after the Persian Period, to be ins...

The Triumph of the Flavians over the Jews was of paramount importance for the establishment of this family as an imperial dynasty and for the reestablishment of the Roman Peace after a brutal civil war. Not less than three emperors served in succession in the bloody year 69 C.E. following the death of Nero. During this period of crisis, the Jews of Judaea rose against their imperial masters. This rebellion was the opportunity for Vespasian (ruled 69-79 C.E.) and his son Titus (ruled 79-81 C.E.) to present themselves as the saviors of Rome. The architectural, numismatic and literary imprint of the Flavian propaganda campaign celebrating Roman defeat of Judaea was enormous. It included construction projects across the Empire on a scale unknown since the rule of Augustus (d. 14 C.E.). Projects included the Coliseum, the Temple of Peace, the Baths of Titus, two triumphal arches, one on the Velia, which survived the

How was the future of Rome, both near and distant in time, imagined by different populations living under the Roman Empire? It emerges from this collection of essays by a distinguished international team of scholars that Romans, Greeks, Jews and Christians had strikingly different answers to that question, revealing profound differences in their conceptions of history and historical time, the purpose of history, the meaning of written words and oral traditions. It is also argued that practically no one living under Rome's rule, including the Romans themselves, did not think about the question in one form or another.

The purpose of this paper is to argue that the well-known eagle, which decorated the façade of the Temple in the days of Herod, had no Roman source of inspiration whatsoever, but it was of Easterner origin.
First of all, I shall examine in detail the account given by Josephus, comparing the two versions of the episode, that which appears in War and that narrated in Antiquities. Although similar, the two passages present important differences. Yet, on the main, we are dealing here with two different views on the Halachah, or Jewish Law, fashionable during the Late Second Temple Period. While, on one hand, the two Masters argue that according to Jewish Law it is forbidden to make an image of any living thing, on the other hand, it is equally clear that there was also in Judaism an attitude, which was favorable, or at least accepted the presence of images. The close study of the two passages of Josephus, bring us to the most important question, namely how the eagle, set on the façade of the Temple, looked like.
It seems probable that the eagle on the façade of Temple is quite likely to be related to the eagle depicted on one of the coins minted by Herod, a half prutah, which depicts on the reverse an eagle with cropped wings. Thus, the second part of the paper focuses on this well-known issue, minted by Herod in Jerusalem, which depicts on the reverse an eagle, with cropped wings. The depiction of the eagle, in fact the only animal, which appears on Herod’s coin, is possibly our main source to understand how the eagle set on the the façade of Temple looked like. A close analysis of this issue shows that the issue was minted many years before the episode of the eagle, between 25 and 19 BCE. Thus, the fact that this issue can be associated to Herod’s inauguration of the temple in 20 BCE strengthens this possibility. Besides, the time framing and the geographic distribution of this specific issue demonstrates that it hardly offended the Jewish population of the kingdom, as this issue was widespread in those areas, where most of the Jewish population lived.
The eagle depicted on the Herodian issue is identical to that depicted on the reverse of the Tyrian shekel, a coin, which was used in the Temple. On both issues, the eagle depicted is characterized by cropped wings. This iconography, which appears in the East in the early Hellenistic period, traced its source of inspiration to the earlier depiction of the eagle with cropped wings, which appear on Ptolemaic tetradrachms. Although this thesis had been recently challenged, however, the fact that when in 19 BCE, King Herod possibly bought the mint of Tyre, giving it as gift to the Temple of Jerusalem, can only strenghten the association between the eagle with cropped wing and the Temple of Jerusalem.
On the other hand, it is quite improbable that King Herod could trace his source of inspiration to earlier Jewish art, as the depiction of animals, such as eagles, although not common, appears already at the begining of the Second Temple period. In fact, the depiction of animals, such as eagles, although not so common, occurs on coins minted in the province of Yahud during the Achaemenid and Ptolemaic period, as well as the in the earlier Hellenistic period, on reliefs of Irak el Amir, the palace erected by Hyrcanus, the son of Tobias. However, in the wake of the Maccabean revolt, Jewish art was dominated by an aniconic trend, which shuns the depiction of human figures and animals. Although in the light of archaeological evidence, it is clear that this trend was more relaxed in the successive Herodian period, yet, the chronological hiatus makes more that improbable this possibility. The desecration of the Temple by Antiochus IV had as as side consequence that iconic art became quite unpalatable for the mainstream of Judaism in the successive periods. Yet the relaxing of this trend can explain the decision of King Herod to set up the eagle on the façade of the Temple, as well as the aggressive action of the two Pharisean masters. Moreover, a close and careful analysis of contemporary numismatic data makes clear that there is no evidence whatsoever that King Herod, through the depiction of an eagle, wished to emphasize his allegiance to Rome. Although during the Late Republic, the eagle appears on the reverse of various issues, by the beginning of the second century BCE, the dominant image on Roman silver coins, the denarii, was the head of the goddess Rome, not the eagle. In no way, therefore, we can assume that the eagle was the most important symbolic element, which embodied Roman power. Besides, the iconography of the Roman eagle was completely different from that of the eagle depicted on the issue minted by Herod, or on the Tyrian Shekel, as its wings were spread outward.
Therefore, it is clear that the source of inspiration for the eagle set on the façade of the Temple stemmed in the Hellenistic East, and it was common in earlier Jewish art.

Jews in the Military é il primo libro che affronta in profondità la partecipazione degli ebrei, sia come singoli, che come gruppo, alla professione militare dal 1600 fino alla creazione dello Stato d'Israele nel 1948. Il libro, però, é anche l'occasione per discutere l'attitudine dell'ebraismo alla guerra in epoca moderna. Come fa presente l'autore, negli ultimi cinquant'anni, il mondo accademico ha concentrato le sue ricerche sull'esercito di Difesa di Israele, tralasciando la tradizione militare degli ebrei della Diaspora. I motivi sono molteplici. In Europa, la Shoah indubbiamente ha creato un solco invalicabile tra la coscienza collettiva ebraica ed un certo tipo di patriottismo. L'Italia, senza dubbio, e' un buon esempio. Solamente negli ultimi anni sono apparsi studi dedicati al contributo degli ebrei italiani alla vita militare della nazione, tra il Risorgimento e le Leggi Razziali. 1 D'altro lato, in America, dove la tradizione militare ebraica ha segnato la storia statunitense fin dall'epoca della Guerra di Indipendenza, il dissenso creato dalla Guerra del Vietnam, ha reso possibile che l'interesse del mondo accademico si dirigesse verso altri campi. Va fatto presente che, al contrario dei vari libri che sono apparsi da metà dell'ottocento fino agli anni successivi alla seconda guerra mondiale, il libro di Penslar non e' apologetico. L'autore nella sua analisi rimane sempre freddo ed obiettivo. Il libro di Penslar dimostra chiaramente, non solo che gli ebrei si sono spesso mostrati volenterosi ma che fossero persino entusiasti di prestare servizio militare nelle varie nazioni in cui risiedevano, soprattutto in Europa Occidentale. In conseguenza l'autore rende palese il legame tra servizio militare, e naturalmente la scelta del militare come professione, e l' Emancipazione offerta dallo stato. Maggiormente profondo é il percorso dell' Emancipazione, più numerosa é la partecipazione degli ebrei alla difesa dello stato. Anche in questo caso, l'Italia tra il Risorgimento e la Prima Guerra Mondiale, e' un ottimo esempio. Penslar riesce quindi a sfatare, seguendo i più rigorosi canoni di analisi storica, il pregiudizio che gli ebrei della Diaspora hanno sempre avuto cura di evitare il servizio militare, ovunque risiedessero. Inoltre Penslar dimostra in maniera convincente che l'ethos militare dell'esercito israeliano, ZAHAL, non è emerso dal vuoto; al contrario, molto prima della creazione dello Stato Ebraico, gli ebrei della

L’assedio di Masada è un piccolo episodio nella grande storia del popolo ebraico, ma ne diventa il simbolo. Nazionalismo e archeologia si intrecciano all’ombra della fortezza di Erode

Sulla sommità di un vertiginoso altopiano situato nel cuore del deserto di Giuda, una fortezza si affaccia a strapiombo sul Mar Morto: è Masada. Qui un gruppo di ebrei, sotto la guida del leader carismatico Eleazar ben Yair, si asserragliò dopo la distruzione del Tempio per continuare la resistenza a oltranza contro i Romani. L’assedio si concluse con il suicidio dei difensori, che preferirono togliersi la vita come uomini liberi piuttosto che divenire schiavi dei Romani; cosí nacque il mito di Masada, che da allora è indissolubilmente legato all’identità ebraica.

Questo libro, ripercorrendo la storia del palazzo di Erode, racconta la nascita di uno dei miti fondativi del movimento sionista, un mito al quale il poeta Yitzhak Lamdan dedicò il celebre verso col quale prestano giuramento i soldati israeliani: « Mai piú Masada cadrà! ».

L’esaltazione della vicenda riportata da Giuseppe Flavio culminò con gli scavi che rivelarono le vestigia della cittadella. Ancora oggi, Masada, dichiarata patrimonio mondiale dell’Unesco nel 2001 e meta del turismo di massa, mantiene intatto tutto il suo fascino. Raccontare la sua storia significa ripercorrere i luoghi di una regione antica, la Giudea, la nascita di uno Stato moderno e le radici di un popolo, quello di Israele.

Published in English. Samuel Rocca presents an in-depth analysis of Herodian society. The most important facet of this analysis was the relationship between Herod as ruler and the Jewish subjects over whom he ruled. Yet to understand the relationship between Herod and his subjects, between ruler and ruled, it is necessary, as part of the general background, to undertake a general analysis of Herodian Judaea and its relationship with the classical world, beginning with Augustan Rome, which was then the center of power, and followed by the main centers within the Mediterranean basin and the Hellenistic East. The author contends that Herod, though a Jewish ruler, regarded both Alexander the Great-the embodiment of the Hellenistic ruler-and Augustus as ideal models who were worthy of imitation. These models of inspiration influenced the shape of society in Herodian Judaea as a whole. In fact, Herod pushed Judaea towards major Hellenization, albeit with many elements more akin to Rome. This trend of Hellenization was present well before the Herodian period but intensified under Herod's rule. It seems that one of the reasons for the intensification of this trend was King Herod's domination of Judaean society, which allowed him to dictate socio-cultural trends to a greater extent than Augustus was able to do in Rome. Samuel Rocca deals with Herod as the head of Jewish society in Judaea, and hence this study is first and foremost a study of Herodian society. Thus he analyzes the Herodian ideology of rule, the court, the army, the administration, the economy, the ruling political bodies, the city as a microcosm, the religion, and the burial customs. This book anchors Herodian Judaea as firmly as possible within the surrounding Mediterranean world and therefore within the realities of Hellenistic Roman civilization in order to better understand its multi-faceted dimensions as part of the surrounding contemporary world, and not simply as an entity belonging to a biblical-New Testament reality.

The main contribution of this book is that it tries to determine how the Jews answered the challenges of Roman society. Thus, the book presents a refreshing approach to the nature of the Roman attitude toward Judaism and the Jews. In addition, it provides the rst detailed examination of the demography and geography of the Jewish communities in Roman Italy. The book also o fers a new look at the legal standing of the Jewish communitarian organization. Last but not least, this study also addresses the various facets of the culture of the Jews living in Roman Italy. Readership Universities and colleges; academic and community libraries; scholars specializing in Jewish history and/or religion, Roman history (especially epigraphy) and/or religion; undergraduate and graduate students in Classics, history, or religion. For more information see brill.com