This study investigates the complex historical narrative surrounding the practice of finger sever... more This study investigates the complex historical narrative surrounding the practice of finger severing (danji 斷指) in early Joseon Korea, focusing on its unique origins and widespread dissemination, and the multifaceted discourse it generated among the ruling elite. By tracing finger severing from its emergence during the reign of King Taejong to its proliferation in the 16th century, this research illuminates the interplay between institutional factors, societal customs, and cultural perceptions that shaped its evolution. This study deviates from the conventional approach of explaining Joseon's cultural edification solely through the intentions and actions of the government and the royal court. Instead, it explores how folk customs were discovered and then intentionally spread by the government, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of Confucianization in Joseon Korea. The dissemination of finger severing highlights the success of the early Joseon ruling class's proactive policies aimed at cultivating and standardizing ethical practices. However, this study also explores the contradictions within the ruling elite's discourse surrounding finger severing, as well as the discrepancy between the ruling class's intentions and the actual motivations driving the civilian populace's engagement in the practice. The proliferation of finger severing in early Joseon Korea represents both the triumph of the state's cultural cultivation policies and the unexpected outcomes of the complex interplay of institutional efforts, societal customs, and divergent perceptions.
This study aims to interpret the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts
during the reigns of Ki... more This study aims to interpret the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts during the reigns of King Sejong and King Sejo as a means of displaying royal authority to the populace and legitimizing the regime. The vernacular translation project during Sejong’s reign was utilized to promote the merits and legitimacy of the royal family. Sejo further expanded this effort by translating not only Buddhist scriptures but also Confucian classics, military strategy books, and practical texts into the vernacular, which was part of an effort to strengthen his royal authority. Notably, the vernacular translation of Buddhist texts during Sejo’s reign received the most significant investment of resources among the translation projects of the time. These vernacular Buddhist texts targeted both monks and lay believers, serving as scripts for sutra-chanting (轉經) ceremonies in temples or as educational materials. By explicitly stating the king’s direct involvement in the translation process, these vernacular Buddhist texts positioned the monarch as a mediator between Buddha and the people. In conclusion, the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts during the reigns of Sejong and Sejo can be understood as a political tool to demonstrate royal authority to the common people and legitimize the regime.
This study aims to examine Seong Hyeon's (成俔, 1439~1504) perspective on the relationship between ... more This study aims to examine Seong Hyeon's (成俔, 1439~1504) perspective on the relationship between the ruler and the ruled through his work 'Buhyujadamnon (浮休子談論)'. Through this analysis, the research seeks to confirm that Seong Hyeon, a representative figure of the bureaucratic literati (관학파 문인) and the Hun-gu faction (훈구파) in early Joseon, attempted to break away from the despotic nature of the Han-Tang Confucianism of the previous generation and was a thinker who particularly emphasized the ruler-ruled relationship aspect of political thought as a Neo-Confucian bureaucrat. In 'Buhyujadamnon', Seong Hyeon expressed his views on the political issues of his time through conversations with a fictional character named Buhyuja (浮休子). This research focuses specifically on analyzing his discourse on the ruler-ruled relationship. Firstly, while acknowledging the authority and dignity of the monarch by comparing him to heaven, Seong Hyeon did not regard it as absolute and omnipotent. For Seong Hyeon, the ruler's governance had to be based on propriety and virtuous rule, which differentiated his stance from the notions of sovereign heaven or cosmic resonance theory. He believed that even natural disasters could be overcome through the monarch's self-cultivation and virtuous governance. Secondly, Seong Hyeon perceived the relationship between the ruler and the ruled as interdependent. He maintained that the king could only govern properly by acquiring wise subjects, and the subjects could only demonstrate their abilities by serving a wise king. Therefore, he emphasized that the king should appoint wise subjects and listen to their remonstrations, while the subjects should not hesitate to offer frank advice but should not be obsessed with their own success either. This emphasis on the moral obligations and practical attitudes between the ruler and the ruled resonates with the concept of 'Gyeokgunsim (格君心)' from Mencius, showing that Seong Hyeon was a bureaucrat who inherited the Neo-Confucian ideals that had been passed down since the early days of the Joseon Dynasty.
본 논문은 조선 전기의 대표적인 관학파 문인이자 전형적 훈구파로 평가되는 성현(成俔, 1439~1504)의 군신관계론을 '부휴자담론(浮休子談論)'을 통해 고찰하고자 하였다. 이를 통해 성현이 이전 세대 한당유학의 전제주의적 성격을 탈피하고자 하였고, 정치사상의 군신관계 측면을 각별히 강조한 성리학자 관료의 성격을 가진 사상가임을 확인하고자 했다. 성현은 '부휴자담론'에서 가상의 인물 부휴자(浮休子)와의 대화를 통해 당시의 정치 현안에 대한 자신의 견해를 피력하였는데, 본 연구는 이를 통해 그의 군신관계론을 집중적으로 분석하였다. 먼저 성현은 임금을 하늘에 비유하여 그 권위와 존엄성을 인정하면서도, 이를 무소불위의 절대적인 것으로 여기지 않았다. 성현에게 있어 군주의 통치는 예법과 덕치에 근거해야 했으며, 이는 주재천 관념이나 천인상감설과 차별화되는 입장이었다. 성현은 천재지변조차 군주의 수신과 덕치로써 극복할 수 있다고 보았다. 다음으로 성현은 군신관계를 상호의존적인 것으로 파악하였다. 임금은 어진 신하를 얻어야만 올바른 정치를 할 수 있고, 신하 또한 현명한 임금을 만나야 자신의 능력을 발휘할 수 있다고 보았다. 이에 임금은 현명한 신하를 등용하고 그 간언을 귀담아 들어야 하며, 신하는 곧은 충언을 아끼지 말되 자신의 출세에 연연해서는 안 된다고 역설하였다. 이러한 군신 간의 도덕적 의무와 실천적 태도에 대한 강조는 맹자의 '격군심(格君心)' 개념과도 상통하는 것으로, 성현이 조선 건국 초기부터 면면히 이어져 온 성리학적 이념을 계승한 관료였음을 보여준다.
This article investigates the records of Sambongjip related to Buddhism to trace how Jeong Do-jeo... more This article investigates the records of Sambongjip related to Buddhism to trace how Jeong Do-jeon formulated his critical theory of Buddhism chronologically. The Sambongjip includes various documents portraying interactions between Jeong Do-jeon and monks before the enthronement of King Chang (1388-1389), a period in which he wandered in exile in political frustration as a young man. Especially during the exile period from 1375 to 1377, Jeong Do-jeon’s close interaction with monks led him to see them as human beings. After his return to politics in 1383, he interacted with Buddhist literati, including Yi Saek, as well as with monks who were members of the intellectual society at the time. Jeong’s critical Buddhist theory evolved as a result of these changes over time.
This paper examines the emergence of 'Noninterference[無爲]' as an ideal political theory during th... more This paper examines the emergence of 'Noninterference[無爲]' as an ideal political theory during the late Goryeo Dynasty, alongside the evolution of various Confucian punishment theories that reshaped concepts of enlightment and punishment. It highlights the contributions of Neo-confucian Scholar such as Lee Gok, Lee Saek, and Jeong Do-jeon who presented political ideal social theories aligned with 'Noninterference.' The central tenet of 'Noninterference' advocates minimizing institutional intervention, emphasizing natural enlightenment among those under control. Additionally, the paper underscores the shift in Confucian thought towards prioritizing virtue over punishment, as evidenced in the emphasis on passages from the Analects. Jeong Do-jeon's contributions to Confucian punishment theory, particularly 'Jashin(自新)' and 'Jiguem(知 禁),' are explored, demonstrating their indirect approaches to punishment with a focus on criminal renewal and public awareness of prohibitions. Ultimately, this exploration of Confucian punishment theory during the late Goryeo Dynasty lays the groundwork for subsequent institutional discussions on edification and punishment in the early Joseon Dynasty.
This thesis explores the dissemination of Confucian ideology during the Late Goryeo Dynasty and E... more This thesis explores the dissemination of Confucian ideology during the Late Goryeo Dynasty and Early Joseon Dynasty and the national social changes surrounding it, and identifies the institutionalization process of Confucian ideology as a result. It argues that the institutionalization of Confucian ideology was a phenomenon that emerged in the late 15th century as a result of early ideological explorations in the 14th century and transitional efforts in the early 15th century. The 14th century witnessed the emergence of enlightenment of Confucianism as responses to societal transformations. The profound social changes occurring at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty were perceived as a critical issue by scholars of the time, often referred to as a crisis of humanity. These changes prompted the rise of Confucian intellectuals based in the provinces, who advocated for the ruling class to employ Neo-Confucianism as a means to stabilize the social shifts that persisted until the late Goryeo Dynasty. They proposed minimizing the state's institutional and coercive methods, as directed in ideal politics and instead encouraged moralization. Consequently, the ruling class became oriented toward the enlightenment of the common people. In their attempts to reform the existing Goryeo system, the ruling class accepted legislation of Yuan empire as a means to address institutional confusion and sought a Reconciliation. This led to the advancement of theoretical discussions on the relationship between morality and punishment. The systematization of this position took place at the stage of Jeong Do-jeon, in which he suggested a bypass means that was not dependent on the use of punishment in mind in the way of 'legal education'. In the early 15th century, the ideology of enlightenment characterized by a Reconciling between Morality and Punishment was established, expanding its focus to include ordinary people. From the inception of the Joseon Dynasty, the ruling class embarked on reorganizing the national system, as represented by the coronation letter, with enlightenment becoming a central objective. In the early 15th century, the ruling class emphasized the education of the people, but also voiced concern about the lack of moral capacity of the common people. Efforts were made to extend education to the common people through the establishment of schools and the distribution of educational books. The promotion of enlightenment within the royal court during the early 15th century yielded practical effects at the grassroots level. Provincial officials, during their retired life, built local Confucian schools and published books through local government offices, utilizing them as tools for enlightenment and contributing to its expansion. Within the ruling class, the topic of enlightenment through punishment emerged as a significant issue, leading to various debates influenced by the writings of Ju-hee, discussing the usefulness of lenient and severe punishments as means of enlightenment. Crime prevention through legal education, exemplified by the Poisonous Decree, was also promoted during this period. Towards the end of the 15th century, the enlightenment of rural customs was institutionalized, and the policy of stabilizing customs, which had been initiated since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, evolved into the institutionalization of Confucian ideology. The ruling class deliberated on the revision of the book distribution policy for enlightenment, appointing filial piety practitioners, and addressing the increasing banditry and unrest in local society through measures such as a relief policy and specialized institutions. They established Confucian ritual institutions in the provinces, allowing local Confucian elites to cooperate in local education. At the end of the 15th century, the purpose of education on laws and regulations was to induce active repentance and the importance of criminals demonstrating genuine remorse through repentance[自新] was emphasized. The proportion of death row inmates receiving commutations expanded, and a more structured basis for consideration beyond arbitrary methods was established, highlighting the significance of fairness in sentencing. Consequently, the expansion of legal measures led to legislative preparations for ensuring wind speed stability. In summary, the thesis presents a theoretical framework developed since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, addressing the long-term challenge of a Reconciling Enlightenment and Punishment for wind speed stability. In this way, a series of processes that were systematically established during the Sungjong Dynasty through the presentation of a theoretical framework at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty and the implementation stage at the Joseon Dynasty level appeared as the "institutional spread of Confucian idea."
This study analyzes previous research on the domination and ruralization of local communities in ... more This study analyzes previous research on the domination and ruralization of local communities in the early Joseon Dynasty, with a focus on studies since the late 1990s. The early Joseon Dynasty witnessed the expansion of the state's public sphere of control alongside the reorganization of the ruling system, leading to debates about the relationship between the state and society in terms of local governance. Two main theories emerged: one emphasizing the strong executive power of the state, and the other examining the antagonistic relationship between the centralized and decentralized nature. Recent studies have criticized earlier research from the 1970s and 1990s, which argued that various local institutions and practices, including the Law of Prohibiting Accusations against Chief Magistrates, local public schools, education for local ordinary people, establishment of The Advisory Council of the Local Elites, and local rites, were characterized by conflicts with central-local forces. Instead, current research emphasizes the logic of the central court for local control in the 15th century and highlights the collaborative efforts of the Joseon Dynasty and local forces to establish a stable and dynamic local governance order. While the criticism of previous research is significant in terms of correcting errors and connecting to the tradition of emphasizing the power of the state, this study suggests that it is also important to consider aspects that cannot be captured by a focus on state and central mediation. The paper argues for a deeper consideration of the problem consciousness of social history research that has been subject to critical scrutiny in the past.
This paper investigates a new ruling policy during Sŏngjon’s reign:organizing legal order and enc... more This paper investigates a new ruling policy during Sŏngjon’s reign:organizing legal order and encouraging common people to be vigilant. First, the government attempted to strengthen the responsibility of provincial officials regarding public safety in order to prevent crimes in local areas. In doing this, the government published legal guidebooks for the officials such as Mongmin Simgam(牧民心鑑) and Yiyuji(疑獄集). In addition, the government promoted fairness as a provincial official’s core virtue. Second, the government enforced the legalization of the Confucian norm in full swing. For example, the number of commutations was increased based on the legalized Confucian norm. Also, an assertion of severe punishment for Moral Persuasion was accepted. Additionally, the revised edition of the Kyŏngguktaejŏn of 1486 stipulated that the sons and grandsons of remarried women would not be eligible for civil or military office. These policy contents were the outcome of what Chosŏn’s founding fathers’ Confucian ideal was realized.
This paper analyses how the Joseon government dealt with two conflicting concepts in the ruling: ... more This paper analyses how the Joseon government dealt with two conflicting concepts in the ruling: an ideal of realizing moral persuasion and a realistic measure of using legal punishment. As a compromise between these options, the government implemented double policies: to instruct common people about the codes and to allow reductions of sentences of some criminals. Such a measure can be called ‘Moral persuasion by legalist approaches.’ By introducing the double policy, the government expected specific outcomes: to deter crime by instructing the codes, and the criminals to be regretful for their wrongdoing by commuting the sentences. The double policy was carried out based on specific intentions. On the one hand, instructing the code was intended to direct commoners not to offend the law. In instructing ordinances, the government was benefited from local intellectuals’ cooperation during the reigns of King Taejong and King Sejong. On the other hand, allowing commutation to some criminals is intended to avoid severe punishment. The government hoped the criminals to be remorseful for their wrongdoing in the process of commutation. Previously, this kind of approach was applied only to elites. However, from the early Joseon period, the target of the approach was widened beyond the upper class. In conclusion, the double policy reveals the Joseon government’s initiatives for harmonizing two conflicting political ideas.
Examined in this article is how the 15th century Joseon government ‘enlightened’ the local region... more Examined in this article is how the 15th century Joseon government ‘enlightened’ the local regions. By principle, in the early years of the Joseon dynasty all the commoners were to be included as objects of such efforts, but execution of the government’s ‘direct enlightenment’ of them was not an easy task. So, the central government of Joseon tried to enlist the aid of ‘local intellectuals’ who were growing in number at the time. They appeared in local regions at the end of the Goryeo dynasty, but some of them were yet to enter the Joseon government because there were already too many officials in the government and no vacant seats, while some of them were just retired from the Goryeo government and not planning to join the Joseon court. They had the same Confucian background as the newborn Joseon government’s central officials, and has been teaching students in the areas where they were living. The Joseon central government literally mobilized them in its local education policy, to have them take over things the central government was unable to take on itself. The government also used local intellectuals in other policies such as the “Read the Law” Act(讀法令), and in the spreading of the Samgang Haengshil-do publications. By enlisting them literally as middle agents for the government’s local enlightenment policy, the Joseon government was having them serve the process of enlightening the commoner population.
This paper attempts to chart and examine the arguments on the role of Neo-Confucianism(Seongnihak... more This paper attempts to chart and examine the arguments on the role of Neo-Confucianism(Seongnihak) during the late Koryo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty. Previous studies regarded that Neo-Confucianism played an important role in the transformation of intellectual climate from the late Koryo to early Joseon era. These traditional studies established three points:1) In mainstream thought, there was a major change due to the introducing of Neo-Confucianism during the era. 2) Neo-Confucianism divided into sects in the late Koryo period. 3)The mixture of Neo-Confucian idea constructed in late Koryo spread to the Korean peninsula without any conspicuous change during the fifteenth and the sixteenth century. Recent studies question the validity of these points:1) The change intellectual climate has nothing to do with the introducing of Neo-Confucianism. 2) There was no split in followers of Neo-Confucianism. 3) The Neo-Confucianism evolved into something else only after the beginning of the sixteenth century. This paper concludes that recent studies have its limitations in presenting evidence and thereby confirms previous studies. Nevertheless, this paper acknowledges the merits of the new studies in that they offered new perspectives on examining the Koryo-Joseon transformation.
Yeomyo廬墓 is a procedure to hold a funeral service in the time of a parent`s death and then build ... more Yeomyo廬墓 is a procedure to hold a funeral service in the time of a parent`s death and then build a nest near the parents` grave. Yeomyo was a popular custom in Chinese tradition. Yeomyo is believed to have been accepted on the Korean Peninsula since the early Koryo Dynasty. In 987, Nobi of the proxy practice of Yeomyo was liberated. This was the result of confucian policy by King Seongjong. At that time, the cause of spreading ‘proxy practice of Yeomyo’ is related to the Classic of Filial Devotion. Classic of Filial Devotion was characterized by filiality as a means of governing. So in Koryo, which emphasizes Classic of Filial Devotion, the proxy process of Yeomyo has also been rewarded without a problem. The example of Direct Practice of Yeomyo appear in the King Injong era. This reflects the state policy and social and cultural phenomenon at the time. The emergence of Yeomyo performers at the time is closely related to the continuous expansion of Confucian ethics in Koryo. The spread of Confucian ethics, which have flourished since King Injong`s time, leads to parental emphasis during the King Injong period and the spread of rewards for Yeomyo. The spread of Confucian ethics that prevailed around King Injong`s time led to the emphasis of funeral process and the reward of Yeomyo performers. Furthermore, Confucian lifestyles practiced by government officials from the King Injong period also spread, contributing to Yeomyo"s practice. Yeomyo became more widespread and changed in the 14th century. By the 14th century, the proxy practice of Yeomyo was still practiced by the Nobi. However, at this time, Yeomyo`s proxy practice of Yeomyo is criticized by Neo-confucian thinker like Lee Gok. With these changes, Direct practice of Yeomyo spreads. The practice of Yeomyo in the 14th century, unlike in the past, consisted mainly of studying abroad and occurred nationwide. The spread of Yeomyo in the 14th century is related to the practice of Neo-confucian thinker who focused on ethical issues for the improvement of social problem at that time. Lee Saek"s idea is an important part of the 14th century Yeomyo settlement process. Lee Saek argued that Yeomyo`s practice was necessary to spread the Three-Years Learning. He thought that the practice of Yeomyo was more necessary to eliminate the "recall to office(起復)" custom of the Koryo Dynasty. However, that idea was different from that of Neo confucian thinker in Song Dynasty based on "Shared Spirit(同氣)" theory. Lee Saek understood the situation. Accordingly, we sought transitional alternatives in Koryo`s reality. Lee Saek`s proposal reflects an advanced perception of the consideration for Yeomyo. After Lee Saek`s suggestion, Yeomyo was firmly established as a Korean tradition.
This article intends to examine the incorporation of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) and the subs... more This article intends to examine the incorporation of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) and the subsequent influence on the Samganghaengsildo (三綱行實圖) compilation process. In doing so, the paper will use case studies from the early Joseon dynasty to analyze the adoption and modification of Chinese culture, as well as the East Asian perspective regarding endemic Korean thought. During the Early Ming dynasty, the Emperor published a series of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) in order to consolidate order within and without the dynasty. These books were compiled with the purpose of unifying the organization of the dynasty. Emperor Yongle (永樂帝) wanted to disseminate the Imperial Morality books throughout not only the Chinese region but also the neighboring nations of Annam and Joseon. Kings Taejong (太宗) and Sejong (世宗) maintained an abundant influx of the Imperial Morality books as part of Joseon’s proactive efforts to defuse diplomatic tensions arising from Emperor Yongle expansive foreign policies. The Joseon dynasty generally considered Imperial Morality books to be edifying texts and eagerly sought to devise application methods. Imperial Morality books, incorporated with existing domestic, were used to publish the Samganghaengsildo (三綱行實圖), The Morality book of Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo is overcome the Hyohaengnok (孝行錄), the Morality book of late Koryo in many ways by the contents of the Imperial Morality books and the political and social environment of the Joseon. Imperial Morality books influenced the compilation of The Samganghaengsildo in early Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo was a convergence of discourse in the newly introduced documents in early Ming and the position of Joseon. Compilation of the Samganghaengsildo was a project reflecting the ideals of the contemporary world, which was made in accordance with the domestic and external conditions.
This study investigates the complex historical narrative surrounding the practice of finger sever... more This study investigates the complex historical narrative surrounding the practice of finger severing (danji 斷指) in early Joseon Korea, focusing on its unique origins and widespread dissemination, and the multifaceted discourse it generated among the ruling elite. By tracing finger severing from its emergence during the reign of King Taejong to its proliferation in the 16th century, this research illuminates the interplay between institutional factors, societal customs, and cultural perceptions that shaped its evolution. This study deviates from the conventional approach of explaining Joseon's cultural edification solely through the intentions and actions of the government and the royal court. Instead, it explores how folk customs were discovered and then intentionally spread by the government, thereby providing a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics of Confucianization in Joseon Korea. The dissemination of finger severing highlights the success of the early Joseon ruling class's proactive policies aimed at cultivating and standardizing ethical practices. However, this study also explores the contradictions within the ruling elite's discourse surrounding finger severing, as well as the discrepancy between the ruling class's intentions and the actual motivations driving the civilian populace's engagement in the practice. The proliferation of finger severing in early Joseon Korea represents both the triumph of the state's cultural cultivation policies and the unexpected outcomes of the complex interplay of institutional efforts, societal customs, and divergent perceptions.
This study aims to interpret the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts
during the reigns of Ki... more This study aims to interpret the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts during the reigns of King Sejong and King Sejo as a means of displaying royal authority to the populace and legitimizing the regime. The vernacular translation project during Sejong’s reign was utilized to promote the merits and legitimacy of the royal family. Sejo further expanded this effort by translating not only Buddhist scriptures but also Confucian classics, military strategy books, and practical texts into the vernacular, which was part of an effort to strengthen his royal authority. Notably, the vernacular translation of Buddhist texts during Sejo’s reign received the most significant investment of resources among the translation projects of the time. These vernacular Buddhist texts targeted both monks and lay believers, serving as scripts for sutra-chanting (轉經) ceremonies in temples or as educational materials. By explicitly stating the king’s direct involvement in the translation process, these vernacular Buddhist texts positioned the monarch as a mediator between Buddha and the people. In conclusion, the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts during the reigns of Sejong and Sejo can be understood as a political tool to demonstrate royal authority to the common people and legitimize the regime.
This study aims to examine Seong Hyeon's (成俔, 1439~1504) perspective on the relationship between ... more This study aims to examine Seong Hyeon's (成俔, 1439~1504) perspective on the relationship between the ruler and the ruled through his work 'Buhyujadamnon (浮休子談論)'. Through this analysis, the research seeks to confirm that Seong Hyeon, a representative figure of the bureaucratic literati (관학파 문인) and the Hun-gu faction (훈구파) in early Joseon, attempted to break away from the despotic nature of the Han-Tang Confucianism of the previous generation and was a thinker who particularly emphasized the ruler-ruled relationship aspect of political thought as a Neo-Confucian bureaucrat. In 'Buhyujadamnon', Seong Hyeon expressed his views on the political issues of his time through conversations with a fictional character named Buhyuja (浮休子). This research focuses specifically on analyzing his discourse on the ruler-ruled relationship. Firstly, while acknowledging the authority and dignity of the monarch by comparing him to heaven, Seong Hyeon did not regard it as absolute and omnipotent. For Seong Hyeon, the ruler's governance had to be based on propriety and virtuous rule, which differentiated his stance from the notions of sovereign heaven or cosmic resonance theory. He believed that even natural disasters could be overcome through the monarch's self-cultivation and virtuous governance. Secondly, Seong Hyeon perceived the relationship between the ruler and the ruled as interdependent. He maintained that the king could only govern properly by acquiring wise subjects, and the subjects could only demonstrate their abilities by serving a wise king. Therefore, he emphasized that the king should appoint wise subjects and listen to their remonstrations, while the subjects should not hesitate to offer frank advice but should not be obsessed with their own success either. This emphasis on the moral obligations and practical attitudes between the ruler and the ruled resonates with the concept of 'Gyeokgunsim (格君心)' from Mencius, showing that Seong Hyeon was a bureaucrat who inherited the Neo-Confucian ideals that had been passed down since the early days of the Joseon Dynasty.
본 논문은 조선 전기의 대표적인 관학파 문인이자 전형적 훈구파로 평가되는 성현(成俔, 1439~1504)의 군신관계론을 '부휴자담론(浮休子談論)'을 통해 고찰하고자 하였다. 이를 통해 성현이 이전 세대 한당유학의 전제주의적 성격을 탈피하고자 하였고, 정치사상의 군신관계 측면을 각별히 강조한 성리학자 관료의 성격을 가진 사상가임을 확인하고자 했다. 성현은 '부휴자담론'에서 가상의 인물 부휴자(浮休子)와의 대화를 통해 당시의 정치 현안에 대한 자신의 견해를 피력하였는데, 본 연구는 이를 통해 그의 군신관계론을 집중적으로 분석하였다. 먼저 성현은 임금을 하늘에 비유하여 그 권위와 존엄성을 인정하면서도, 이를 무소불위의 절대적인 것으로 여기지 않았다. 성현에게 있어 군주의 통치는 예법과 덕치에 근거해야 했으며, 이는 주재천 관념이나 천인상감설과 차별화되는 입장이었다. 성현은 천재지변조차 군주의 수신과 덕치로써 극복할 수 있다고 보았다. 다음으로 성현은 군신관계를 상호의존적인 것으로 파악하였다. 임금은 어진 신하를 얻어야만 올바른 정치를 할 수 있고, 신하 또한 현명한 임금을 만나야 자신의 능력을 발휘할 수 있다고 보았다. 이에 임금은 현명한 신하를 등용하고 그 간언을 귀담아 들어야 하며, 신하는 곧은 충언을 아끼지 말되 자신의 출세에 연연해서는 안 된다고 역설하였다. 이러한 군신 간의 도덕적 의무와 실천적 태도에 대한 강조는 맹자의 '격군심(格君心)' 개념과도 상통하는 것으로, 성현이 조선 건국 초기부터 면면히 이어져 온 성리학적 이념을 계승한 관료였음을 보여준다.
This article investigates the records of Sambongjip related to Buddhism to trace how Jeong Do-jeo... more This article investigates the records of Sambongjip related to Buddhism to trace how Jeong Do-jeon formulated his critical theory of Buddhism chronologically. The Sambongjip includes various documents portraying interactions between Jeong Do-jeon and monks before the enthronement of King Chang (1388-1389), a period in which he wandered in exile in political frustration as a young man. Especially during the exile period from 1375 to 1377, Jeong Do-jeon’s close interaction with monks led him to see them as human beings. After his return to politics in 1383, he interacted with Buddhist literati, including Yi Saek, as well as with monks who were members of the intellectual society at the time. Jeong’s critical Buddhist theory evolved as a result of these changes over time.
This paper examines the emergence of 'Noninterference[無爲]' as an ideal political theory during th... more This paper examines the emergence of 'Noninterference[無爲]' as an ideal political theory during the late Goryeo Dynasty, alongside the evolution of various Confucian punishment theories that reshaped concepts of enlightment and punishment. It highlights the contributions of Neo-confucian Scholar such as Lee Gok, Lee Saek, and Jeong Do-jeon who presented political ideal social theories aligned with 'Noninterference.' The central tenet of 'Noninterference' advocates minimizing institutional intervention, emphasizing natural enlightenment among those under control. Additionally, the paper underscores the shift in Confucian thought towards prioritizing virtue over punishment, as evidenced in the emphasis on passages from the Analects. Jeong Do-jeon's contributions to Confucian punishment theory, particularly 'Jashin(自新)' and 'Jiguem(知 禁),' are explored, demonstrating their indirect approaches to punishment with a focus on criminal renewal and public awareness of prohibitions. Ultimately, this exploration of Confucian punishment theory during the late Goryeo Dynasty lays the groundwork for subsequent institutional discussions on edification and punishment in the early Joseon Dynasty.
This thesis explores the dissemination of Confucian ideology during the Late Goryeo Dynasty and E... more This thesis explores the dissemination of Confucian ideology during the Late Goryeo Dynasty and Early Joseon Dynasty and the national social changes surrounding it, and identifies the institutionalization process of Confucian ideology as a result. It argues that the institutionalization of Confucian ideology was a phenomenon that emerged in the late 15th century as a result of early ideological explorations in the 14th century and transitional efforts in the early 15th century. The 14th century witnessed the emergence of enlightenment of Confucianism as responses to societal transformations. The profound social changes occurring at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty were perceived as a critical issue by scholars of the time, often referred to as a crisis of humanity. These changes prompted the rise of Confucian intellectuals based in the provinces, who advocated for the ruling class to employ Neo-Confucianism as a means to stabilize the social shifts that persisted until the late Goryeo Dynasty. They proposed minimizing the state's institutional and coercive methods, as directed in ideal politics and instead encouraged moralization. Consequently, the ruling class became oriented toward the enlightenment of the common people. In their attempts to reform the existing Goryeo system, the ruling class accepted legislation of Yuan empire as a means to address institutional confusion and sought a Reconciliation. This led to the advancement of theoretical discussions on the relationship between morality and punishment. The systematization of this position took place at the stage of Jeong Do-jeon, in which he suggested a bypass means that was not dependent on the use of punishment in mind in the way of 'legal education'. In the early 15th century, the ideology of enlightenment characterized by a Reconciling between Morality and Punishment was established, expanding its focus to include ordinary people. From the inception of the Joseon Dynasty, the ruling class embarked on reorganizing the national system, as represented by the coronation letter, with enlightenment becoming a central objective. In the early 15th century, the ruling class emphasized the education of the people, but also voiced concern about the lack of moral capacity of the common people. Efforts were made to extend education to the common people through the establishment of schools and the distribution of educational books. The promotion of enlightenment within the royal court during the early 15th century yielded practical effects at the grassroots level. Provincial officials, during their retired life, built local Confucian schools and published books through local government offices, utilizing them as tools for enlightenment and contributing to its expansion. Within the ruling class, the topic of enlightenment through punishment emerged as a significant issue, leading to various debates influenced by the writings of Ju-hee, discussing the usefulness of lenient and severe punishments as means of enlightenment. Crime prevention through legal education, exemplified by the Poisonous Decree, was also promoted during this period. Towards the end of the 15th century, the enlightenment of rural customs was institutionalized, and the policy of stabilizing customs, which had been initiated since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, evolved into the institutionalization of Confucian ideology. The ruling class deliberated on the revision of the book distribution policy for enlightenment, appointing filial piety practitioners, and addressing the increasing banditry and unrest in local society through measures such as a relief policy and specialized institutions. They established Confucian ritual institutions in the provinces, allowing local Confucian elites to cooperate in local education. At the end of the 15th century, the purpose of education on laws and regulations was to induce active repentance and the importance of criminals demonstrating genuine remorse through repentance[自新] was emphasized. The proportion of death row inmates receiving commutations expanded, and a more structured basis for consideration beyond arbitrary methods was established, highlighting the significance of fairness in sentencing. Consequently, the expansion of legal measures led to legislative preparations for ensuring wind speed stability. In summary, the thesis presents a theoretical framework developed since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, addressing the long-term challenge of a Reconciling Enlightenment and Punishment for wind speed stability. In this way, a series of processes that were systematically established during the Sungjong Dynasty through the presentation of a theoretical framework at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty and the implementation stage at the Joseon Dynasty level appeared as the "institutional spread of Confucian idea."
This study analyzes previous research on the domination and ruralization of local communities in ... more This study analyzes previous research on the domination and ruralization of local communities in the early Joseon Dynasty, with a focus on studies since the late 1990s. The early Joseon Dynasty witnessed the expansion of the state's public sphere of control alongside the reorganization of the ruling system, leading to debates about the relationship between the state and society in terms of local governance. Two main theories emerged: one emphasizing the strong executive power of the state, and the other examining the antagonistic relationship between the centralized and decentralized nature. Recent studies have criticized earlier research from the 1970s and 1990s, which argued that various local institutions and practices, including the Law of Prohibiting Accusations against Chief Magistrates, local public schools, education for local ordinary people, establishment of The Advisory Council of the Local Elites, and local rites, were characterized by conflicts with central-local forces. Instead, current research emphasizes the logic of the central court for local control in the 15th century and highlights the collaborative efforts of the Joseon Dynasty and local forces to establish a stable and dynamic local governance order. While the criticism of previous research is significant in terms of correcting errors and connecting to the tradition of emphasizing the power of the state, this study suggests that it is also important to consider aspects that cannot be captured by a focus on state and central mediation. The paper argues for a deeper consideration of the problem consciousness of social history research that has been subject to critical scrutiny in the past.
This paper investigates a new ruling policy during Sŏngjon’s reign:organizing legal order and enc... more This paper investigates a new ruling policy during Sŏngjon’s reign:organizing legal order and encouraging common people to be vigilant. First, the government attempted to strengthen the responsibility of provincial officials regarding public safety in order to prevent crimes in local areas. In doing this, the government published legal guidebooks for the officials such as Mongmin Simgam(牧民心鑑) and Yiyuji(疑獄集). In addition, the government promoted fairness as a provincial official’s core virtue. Second, the government enforced the legalization of the Confucian norm in full swing. For example, the number of commutations was increased based on the legalized Confucian norm. Also, an assertion of severe punishment for Moral Persuasion was accepted. Additionally, the revised edition of the Kyŏngguktaejŏn of 1486 stipulated that the sons and grandsons of remarried women would not be eligible for civil or military office. These policy contents were the outcome of what Chosŏn’s founding fathers’ Confucian ideal was realized.
This paper analyses how the Joseon government dealt with two conflicting concepts in the ruling: ... more This paper analyses how the Joseon government dealt with two conflicting concepts in the ruling: an ideal of realizing moral persuasion and a realistic measure of using legal punishment. As a compromise between these options, the government implemented double policies: to instruct common people about the codes and to allow reductions of sentences of some criminals. Such a measure can be called ‘Moral persuasion by legalist approaches.’ By introducing the double policy, the government expected specific outcomes: to deter crime by instructing the codes, and the criminals to be regretful for their wrongdoing by commuting the sentences. The double policy was carried out based on specific intentions. On the one hand, instructing the code was intended to direct commoners not to offend the law. In instructing ordinances, the government was benefited from local intellectuals’ cooperation during the reigns of King Taejong and King Sejong. On the other hand, allowing commutation to some criminals is intended to avoid severe punishment. The government hoped the criminals to be remorseful for their wrongdoing in the process of commutation. Previously, this kind of approach was applied only to elites. However, from the early Joseon period, the target of the approach was widened beyond the upper class. In conclusion, the double policy reveals the Joseon government’s initiatives for harmonizing two conflicting political ideas.
Examined in this article is how the 15th century Joseon government ‘enlightened’ the local region... more Examined in this article is how the 15th century Joseon government ‘enlightened’ the local regions. By principle, in the early years of the Joseon dynasty all the commoners were to be included as objects of such efforts, but execution of the government’s ‘direct enlightenment’ of them was not an easy task. So, the central government of Joseon tried to enlist the aid of ‘local intellectuals’ who were growing in number at the time. They appeared in local regions at the end of the Goryeo dynasty, but some of them were yet to enter the Joseon government because there were already too many officials in the government and no vacant seats, while some of them were just retired from the Goryeo government and not planning to join the Joseon court. They had the same Confucian background as the newborn Joseon government’s central officials, and has been teaching students in the areas where they were living. The Joseon central government literally mobilized them in its local education policy, to have them take over things the central government was unable to take on itself. The government also used local intellectuals in other policies such as the “Read the Law” Act(讀法令), and in the spreading of the Samgang Haengshil-do publications. By enlisting them literally as middle agents for the government’s local enlightenment policy, the Joseon government was having them serve the process of enlightening the commoner population.
This paper attempts to chart and examine the arguments on the role of Neo-Confucianism(Seongnihak... more This paper attempts to chart and examine the arguments on the role of Neo-Confucianism(Seongnihak) during the late Koryo Dynasty to the early Joseon Dynasty. Previous studies regarded that Neo-Confucianism played an important role in the transformation of intellectual climate from the late Koryo to early Joseon era. These traditional studies established three points:1) In mainstream thought, there was a major change due to the introducing of Neo-Confucianism during the era. 2) Neo-Confucianism divided into sects in the late Koryo period. 3)The mixture of Neo-Confucian idea constructed in late Koryo spread to the Korean peninsula without any conspicuous change during the fifteenth and the sixteenth century. Recent studies question the validity of these points:1) The change intellectual climate has nothing to do with the introducing of Neo-Confucianism. 2) There was no split in followers of Neo-Confucianism. 3) The Neo-Confucianism evolved into something else only after the beginning of the sixteenth century. This paper concludes that recent studies have its limitations in presenting evidence and thereby confirms previous studies. Nevertheless, this paper acknowledges the merits of the new studies in that they offered new perspectives on examining the Koryo-Joseon transformation.
Yeomyo廬墓 is a procedure to hold a funeral service in the time of a parent`s death and then build ... more Yeomyo廬墓 is a procedure to hold a funeral service in the time of a parent`s death and then build a nest near the parents` grave. Yeomyo was a popular custom in Chinese tradition. Yeomyo is believed to have been accepted on the Korean Peninsula since the early Koryo Dynasty. In 987, Nobi of the proxy practice of Yeomyo was liberated. This was the result of confucian policy by King Seongjong. At that time, the cause of spreading ‘proxy practice of Yeomyo’ is related to the Classic of Filial Devotion. Classic of Filial Devotion was characterized by filiality as a means of governing. So in Koryo, which emphasizes Classic of Filial Devotion, the proxy process of Yeomyo has also been rewarded without a problem. The example of Direct Practice of Yeomyo appear in the King Injong era. This reflects the state policy and social and cultural phenomenon at the time. The emergence of Yeomyo performers at the time is closely related to the continuous expansion of Confucian ethics in Koryo. The spread of Confucian ethics, which have flourished since King Injong`s time, leads to parental emphasis during the King Injong period and the spread of rewards for Yeomyo. The spread of Confucian ethics that prevailed around King Injong`s time led to the emphasis of funeral process and the reward of Yeomyo performers. Furthermore, Confucian lifestyles practiced by government officials from the King Injong period also spread, contributing to Yeomyo"s practice. Yeomyo became more widespread and changed in the 14th century. By the 14th century, the proxy practice of Yeomyo was still practiced by the Nobi. However, at this time, Yeomyo`s proxy practice of Yeomyo is criticized by Neo-confucian thinker like Lee Gok. With these changes, Direct practice of Yeomyo spreads. The practice of Yeomyo in the 14th century, unlike in the past, consisted mainly of studying abroad and occurred nationwide. The spread of Yeomyo in the 14th century is related to the practice of Neo-confucian thinker who focused on ethical issues for the improvement of social problem at that time. Lee Saek"s idea is an important part of the 14th century Yeomyo settlement process. Lee Saek argued that Yeomyo`s practice was necessary to spread the Three-Years Learning. He thought that the practice of Yeomyo was more necessary to eliminate the "recall to office(起復)" custom of the Koryo Dynasty. However, that idea was different from that of Neo confucian thinker in Song Dynasty based on "Shared Spirit(同氣)" theory. Lee Saek understood the situation. Accordingly, we sought transitional alternatives in Koryo`s reality. Lee Saek`s proposal reflects an advanced perception of the consideration for Yeomyo. After Lee Saek`s suggestion, Yeomyo was firmly established as a Korean tradition.
This article intends to examine the incorporation of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) and the subs... more This article intends to examine the incorporation of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) and the subsequent influence on the Samganghaengsildo (三綱行實圖) compilation process. In doing so, the paper will use case studies from the early Joseon dynasty to analyze the adoption and modification of Chinese culture, as well as the East Asian perspective regarding endemic Korean thought. During the Early Ming dynasty, the Emperor published a series of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) in order to consolidate order within and without the dynasty. These books were compiled with the purpose of unifying the organization of the dynasty. Emperor Yongle (永樂帝) wanted to disseminate the Imperial Morality books throughout not only the Chinese region but also the neighboring nations of Annam and Joseon. Kings Taejong (太宗) and Sejong (世宗) maintained an abundant influx of the Imperial Morality books as part of Joseon’s proactive efforts to defuse diplomatic tensions arising from Emperor Yongle expansive foreign policies. The Joseon dynasty generally considered Imperial Morality books to be edifying texts and eagerly sought to devise application methods. Imperial Morality books, incorporated with existing domestic, were used to publish the Samganghaengsildo (三綱行實圖), The Morality book of Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo is overcome the Hyohaengnok (孝行錄), the Morality book of late Koryo in many ways by the contents of the Imperial Morality books and the political and social environment of the Joseon. Imperial Morality books influenced the compilation of The Samganghaengsildo in early Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo was a convergence of discourse in the newly introduced documents in early Ming and the position of Joseon. Compilation of the Samganghaengsildo was a project reflecting the ideals of the contemporary world, which was made in accordance with the domestic and external conditions.
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Papers by SangMin Lee
during the reigns of King Sejong and King Sejo as a means of displaying royal authority to the populace and legitimizing the regime. The vernacular
translation project during Sejong’s reign was utilized to promote the merits
and legitimacy of the royal family. Sejo further expanded this effort by
translating not only Buddhist scriptures but also Confucian classics, military strategy books, and practical texts into the vernacular, which was part of an effort to strengthen his royal authority.
Notably, the vernacular translation of Buddhist texts during Sejo’s reign
received the most significant investment of resources among the translation projects of the time. These vernacular Buddhist texts targeted both monks and lay believers, serving as scripts for sutra-chanting (轉經) ceremonies in temples or as educational materials. By explicitly stating the king’s direct involvement in the translation process, these vernacular Buddhist texts positioned the monarch as a mediator between Buddha and the people. In conclusion, the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts during the reigns of Sejong and Sejo can be understood as a political tool to demonstrate royal authority to the common people and legitimize the regime.
본 논문은 조선 전기의 대표적인 관학파 문인이자 전형적 훈구파로 평가되는 성현(成俔, 1439~1504)의 군신관계론을 '부휴자담론(浮休子談論)'을 통해 고찰하고자 하였다. 이를 통해 성현이 이전 세대 한당유학의 전제주의적 성격을 탈피하고자 하였고, 정치사상의 군신관계 측면을 각별히 강조한 성리학자 관료의 성격을 가진 사상가임을 확인하고자 했다. 성현은 '부휴자담론'에서 가상의 인물 부휴자(浮休子)와의 대화를 통해 당시의 정치 현안에 대한 자신의 견해를 피력하였는데, 본 연구는 이를 통해 그의 군신관계론을 집중적으로 분석하였다. 먼저 성현은 임금을 하늘에 비유하여 그 권위와 존엄성을 인정하면서도, 이를 무소불위의 절대적인 것으로 여기지 않았다. 성현에게 있어 군주의 통치는 예법과 덕치에 근거해야 했으며, 이는 주재천 관념이나 천인상감설과 차별화되는 입장이었다. 성현은 천재지변조차 군주의 수신과 덕치로써 극복할 수 있다고 보았다. 다음으로 성현은 군신관계를 상호의존적인 것으로 파악하였다. 임금은 어진 신하를 얻어야만 올바른 정치를 할 수 있고, 신하 또한 현명한 임금을 만나야 자신의 능력을 발휘할 수 있다고 보았다. 이에 임금은 현명한 신하를 등용하고 그 간언을 귀담아 들어야 하며, 신하는 곧은 충언을 아끼지 말되 자신의 출세에 연연해서는 안 된다고 역설하였다. 이러한 군신 간의 도덕적 의무와 실천적 태도에 대한 강조는 맹자의 '격군심(格君心)' 개념과도 상통하는 것으로, 성현이 조선 건국 초기부터 면면히 이어져 온 성리학적 이념을 계승한 관료였음을 보여준다.
The 14th century witnessed the emergence of enlightenment of Confucianism as responses to societal transformations. The profound social changes occurring at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty were perceived as a critical issue by scholars of the time, often referred to as a crisis of humanity. These changes prompted the rise of Confucian intellectuals based in the provinces, who advocated for the ruling class to employ Neo-Confucianism as a means to stabilize the social shifts that persisted until the late Goryeo Dynasty. They proposed minimizing the state's institutional and coercive methods, as directed in ideal politics and instead encouraged moralization. Consequently, the ruling class became oriented toward the enlightenment of the common people. In their attempts to reform the existing Goryeo system, the ruling class accepted legislation of Yuan empire as a means to address institutional confusion and sought a Reconciliation. This led to the advancement of theoretical discussions on the relationship between morality and punishment. The systematization of this position took place at the stage of Jeong Do-jeon, in which he suggested a bypass means that was not dependent on the use of punishment in mind in the way of 'legal education'.
In the early 15th century, the ideology of enlightenment characterized by a Reconciling between Morality and Punishment was established, expanding its focus to include ordinary people. From the inception of the Joseon Dynasty, the ruling class embarked on reorganizing the national system, as represented by the coronation letter, with enlightenment becoming a central objective. In the early 15th century, the ruling class emphasized the education of the people, but also voiced concern about the lack of moral capacity of the common people. Efforts were made to extend education to the common people through the establishment of schools and the distribution of educational books. The promotion of enlightenment within the royal court during the early 15th century yielded practical effects at the grassroots level. Provincial officials, during their retired life, built local Confucian schools and published books through local government offices, utilizing them as tools for enlightenment and contributing to its expansion. Within the ruling class, the topic of enlightenment through punishment emerged as a significant issue, leading to various debates influenced by the writings of Ju-hee, discussing the usefulness of lenient and severe punishments as means of enlightenment. Crime prevention through legal education, exemplified by the Poisonous Decree, was also promoted during this period.
Towards the end of the 15th century, the enlightenment of rural customs was institutionalized, and the policy of stabilizing customs, which had been initiated since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, evolved into the institutionalization of Confucian ideology. The ruling class deliberated on the revision of the book distribution policy for enlightenment, appointing filial piety practitioners, and addressing the increasing banditry and unrest in local society through measures such as a relief policy and specialized institutions. They established Confucian ritual institutions in the provinces, allowing local Confucian elites to cooperate in local education.
At the end of the 15th century, the purpose of education on laws and regulations was to induce active repentance and the importance of criminals demonstrating genuine remorse through repentance[自新] was emphasized. The proportion of death row inmates receiving commutations expanded, and a more structured basis for consideration beyond arbitrary methods was established, highlighting the significance of fairness in sentencing. Consequently, the expansion of legal measures led to legislative preparations for ensuring wind speed stability.
In summary, the thesis presents a theoretical framework developed since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, addressing the long-term challenge of a Reconciling Enlightenment and Punishment for wind speed stability. In this way, a series of processes that were systematically established during the Sungjong Dynasty through the presentation of a theoretical framework at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty and the implementation stage at the Joseon Dynasty level appeared as the "institutional spread of Confucian idea."
Recent studies have criticized earlier research from the 1970s and 1990s, which argued that various local institutions and practices, including the Law of Prohibiting Accusations against Chief Magistrates, local public schools, education for local ordinary people, establishment of The Advisory Council of the Local Elites, and local rites, were characterized by conflicts with central-local forces.
Instead, current research emphasizes the logic of the central court for local control in the 15th century and highlights the collaborative efforts of the Joseon Dynasty and local forces to establish a stable and dynamic local governance order.
While the criticism of previous research is significant in terms of correcting errors and connecting to the tradition of emphasizing the power of the state, this study suggests that it is also important to consider aspects that cannot be captured by a focus on state and central mediation. The paper argues for a deeper consideration of the problem consciousness of social history research that has been subject to critical scrutiny in the past.
First, the government attempted to strengthen the responsibility of provincial officials regarding public safety in order to prevent crimes in local areas. In doing this, the government published legal guidebooks for the officials such as Mongmin Simgam(牧民心鑑) and Yiyuji(疑獄集). In addition, the government promoted fairness as a provincial official’s core virtue.
Second, the government enforced the legalization of the Confucian norm in full swing. For example, the number of commutations was increased based on the legalized Confucian norm. Also, an assertion of severe punishment for Moral Persuasion was accepted. Additionally, the revised edition of the Kyŏngguktaejŏn of 1486 stipulated that the sons and grandsons of remarried women would not be eligible for civil or military office. These policy contents were
the outcome of what Chosŏn’s founding fathers’ Confucian ideal was realized.
In conclusion, the double policy reveals the Joseon government’s initiatives for harmonizing two conflicting political ideas.
So, the central government of Joseon tried to enlist the aid of ‘local intellectuals’ who were growing in number at the time. They appeared in local regions at the end of the Goryeo dynasty, but some of them were yet to enter the Joseon government because there were already too many officials in the government and no vacant seats, while some of them were just retired from the Goryeo government and not planning to join the Joseon court. They had the same Confucian background as the newborn Joseon government’s central officials, and has been teaching students in the areas where they were living. The Joseon central government literally mobilized them in its local education policy, to have them take over things the central government was unable to take on itself.
The government also used local intellectuals in other policies such as the “Read the Law” Act(讀法令), and in the spreading of the Samgang Haengshil-do publications. By enlisting them literally as middle agents for the government’s local enlightenment policy, the Joseon government was having them serve the process of enlightening the commoner population.
Previous studies regarded that Neo-Confucianism played an important role in the transformation of intellectual climate from the late Koryo to early Joseon era. These traditional studies established three points:1) In mainstream thought, there was a major change due to the introducing of Neo-Confucianism during the era. 2) Neo-Confucianism divided into sects in the late Koryo period. 3)The mixture of Neo-Confucian idea constructed in late Koryo spread to the Korean peninsula without any conspicuous change during the fifteenth and the sixteenth century.
Recent studies question the validity of these points:1) The change intellectual climate has nothing to do with the introducing of Neo-Confucianism. 2) There was no split in followers of Neo-Confucianism. 3) The Neo-Confucianism evolved into something else only after the beginning of the sixteenth century.
This paper concludes that recent studies have its limitations in presenting evidence and thereby confirms previous studies. Nevertheless, this paper acknowledges the merits of the new studies in that they offered new perspectives on examining the Koryo-Joseon transformation.
Yeomyo became more widespread and changed in the 14th century. By the 14th century, the proxy practice of Yeomyo was still practiced by the Nobi. However, at this time, Yeomyo`s proxy practice of Yeomyo is criticized by Neo-confucian thinker like Lee Gok. With these changes, Direct practice of Yeomyo spreads. The practice of Yeomyo in the 14th century, unlike in the past, consisted mainly of studying abroad and occurred nationwide. The spread of Yeomyo in the 14th century is related to the practice of Neo-confucian thinker who focused on ethical issues for the improvement of social problem at that time. Lee Saek"s idea is an important part of the 14th century Yeomyo settlement process. Lee Saek argued that Yeomyo`s practice was necessary to spread the Three-Years Learning. He thought that the practice of Yeomyo was more necessary to eliminate the "recall to office(起復)" custom of the Koryo Dynasty. However, that idea was different from that of Neo confucian thinker in Song Dynasty based on "Shared Spirit(同氣)" theory. Lee Saek understood the situation. Accordingly, we sought transitional alternatives in Koryo`s reality. Lee Saek`s proposal reflects an advanced perception of the consideration for Yeomyo. After Lee Saek`s suggestion, Yeomyo was firmly established as a Korean tradition.
During the Early Ming dynasty, the Emperor published a series of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) in order to consolidate order within and without the dynasty. These books were compiled with the purpose of unifying the organization of the dynasty. Emperor Yongle (永樂帝) wanted to disseminate the Imperial Morality books throughout not only the Chinese region but also the neighboring nations of Annam and Joseon. Kings Taejong (太宗) and Sejong (世宗) maintained an abundant influx of the Imperial Morality books as part of Joseon’s proactive efforts to defuse diplomatic tensions arising
from Emperor Yongle expansive foreign policies. The Joseon dynasty generally considered Imperial Morality books to be edifying texts and
eagerly sought to devise application methods.
Imperial Morality books, incorporated with existing domestic, were used to publish the Samganghaengsildo (三綱行實圖), The Morality book of Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo is overcome the Hyohaengnok (孝行錄), the Morality book of late Koryo in many ways by the contents of the Imperial Morality books and the political and social environment of the Joseon.
Imperial Morality books influenced the compilation of The Samganghaengsildo in early Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo was a convergence of discourse in the newly introduced documents in early Ming and the position of Joseon. Compilation of the Samganghaengsildo was a project reflecting the ideals of the contemporary world, which was made in accordance with the domestic and external conditions.
during the reigns of King Sejong and King Sejo as a means of displaying royal authority to the populace and legitimizing the regime. The vernacular
translation project during Sejong’s reign was utilized to promote the merits
and legitimacy of the royal family. Sejo further expanded this effort by
translating not only Buddhist scriptures but also Confucian classics, military strategy books, and practical texts into the vernacular, which was part of an effort to strengthen his royal authority.
Notably, the vernacular translation of Buddhist texts during Sejo’s reign
received the most significant investment of resources among the translation projects of the time. These vernacular Buddhist texts targeted both monks and lay believers, serving as scripts for sutra-chanting (轉經) ceremonies in temples or as educational materials. By explicitly stating the king’s direct involvement in the translation process, these vernacular Buddhist texts positioned the monarch as a mediator between Buddha and the people. In conclusion, the compilation of vernacular Buddhist texts during the reigns of Sejong and Sejo can be understood as a political tool to demonstrate royal authority to the common people and legitimize the regime.
본 논문은 조선 전기의 대표적인 관학파 문인이자 전형적 훈구파로 평가되는 성현(成俔, 1439~1504)의 군신관계론을 '부휴자담론(浮休子談論)'을 통해 고찰하고자 하였다. 이를 통해 성현이 이전 세대 한당유학의 전제주의적 성격을 탈피하고자 하였고, 정치사상의 군신관계 측면을 각별히 강조한 성리학자 관료의 성격을 가진 사상가임을 확인하고자 했다. 성현은 '부휴자담론'에서 가상의 인물 부휴자(浮休子)와의 대화를 통해 당시의 정치 현안에 대한 자신의 견해를 피력하였는데, 본 연구는 이를 통해 그의 군신관계론을 집중적으로 분석하였다. 먼저 성현은 임금을 하늘에 비유하여 그 권위와 존엄성을 인정하면서도, 이를 무소불위의 절대적인 것으로 여기지 않았다. 성현에게 있어 군주의 통치는 예법과 덕치에 근거해야 했으며, 이는 주재천 관념이나 천인상감설과 차별화되는 입장이었다. 성현은 천재지변조차 군주의 수신과 덕치로써 극복할 수 있다고 보았다. 다음으로 성현은 군신관계를 상호의존적인 것으로 파악하였다. 임금은 어진 신하를 얻어야만 올바른 정치를 할 수 있고, 신하 또한 현명한 임금을 만나야 자신의 능력을 발휘할 수 있다고 보았다. 이에 임금은 현명한 신하를 등용하고 그 간언을 귀담아 들어야 하며, 신하는 곧은 충언을 아끼지 말되 자신의 출세에 연연해서는 안 된다고 역설하였다. 이러한 군신 간의 도덕적 의무와 실천적 태도에 대한 강조는 맹자의 '격군심(格君心)' 개념과도 상통하는 것으로, 성현이 조선 건국 초기부터 면면히 이어져 온 성리학적 이념을 계승한 관료였음을 보여준다.
The 14th century witnessed the emergence of enlightenment of Confucianism as responses to societal transformations. The profound social changes occurring at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty were perceived as a critical issue by scholars of the time, often referred to as a crisis of humanity. These changes prompted the rise of Confucian intellectuals based in the provinces, who advocated for the ruling class to employ Neo-Confucianism as a means to stabilize the social shifts that persisted until the late Goryeo Dynasty. They proposed minimizing the state's institutional and coercive methods, as directed in ideal politics and instead encouraged moralization. Consequently, the ruling class became oriented toward the enlightenment of the common people. In their attempts to reform the existing Goryeo system, the ruling class accepted legislation of Yuan empire as a means to address institutional confusion and sought a Reconciliation. This led to the advancement of theoretical discussions on the relationship between morality and punishment. The systematization of this position took place at the stage of Jeong Do-jeon, in which he suggested a bypass means that was not dependent on the use of punishment in mind in the way of 'legal education'.
In the early 15th century, the ideology of enlightenment characterized by a Reconciling between Morality and Punishment was established, expanding its focus to include ordinary people. From the inception of the Joseon Dynasty, the ruling class embarked on reorganizing the national system, as represented by the coronation letter, with enlightenment becoming a central objective. In the early 15th century, the ruling class emphasized the education of the people, but also voiced concern about the lack of moral capacity of the common people. Efforts were made to extend education to the common people through the establishment of schools and the distribution of educational books. The promotion of enlightenment within the royal court during the early 15th century yielded practical effects at the grassroots level. Provincial officials, during their retired life, built local Confucian schools and published books through local government offices, utilizing them as tools for enlightenment and contributing to its expansion. Within the ruling class, the topic of enlightenment through punishment emerged as a significant issue, leading to various debates influenced by the writings of Ju-hee, discussing the usefulness of lenient and severe punishments as means of enlightenment. Crime prevention through legal education, exemplified by the Poisonous Decree, was also promoted during this period.
Towards the end of the 15th century, the enlightenment of rural customs was institutionalized, and the policy of stabilizing customs, which had been initiated since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, evolved into the institutionalization of Confucian ideology. The ruling class deliberated on the revision of the book distribution policy for enlightenment, appointing filial piety practitioners, and addressing the increasing banditry and unrest in local society through measures such as a relief policy and specialized institutions. They established Confucian ritual institutions in the provinces, allowing local Confucian elites to cooperate in local education.
At the end of the 15th century, the purpose of education on laws and regulations was to induce active repentance and the importance of criminals demonstrating genuine remorse through repentance[自新] was emphasized. The proportion of death row inmates receiving commutations expanded, and a more structured basis for consideration beyond arbitrary methods was established, highlighting the significance of fairness in sentencing. Consequently, the expansion of legal measures led to legislative preparations for ensuring wind speed stability.
In summary, the thesis presents a theoretical framework developed since the end of the Goryeo Dynasty, addressing the long-term challenge of a Reconciling Enlightenment and Punishment for wind speed stability. In this way, a series of processes that were systematically established during the Sungjong Dynasty through the presentation of a theoretical framework at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty and the implementation stage at the Joseon Dynasty level appeared as the "institutional spread of Confucian idea."
Recent studies have criticized earlier research from the 1970s and 1990s, which argued that various local institutions and practices, including the Law of Prohibiting Accusations against Chief Magistrates, local public schools, education for local ordinary people, establishment of The Advisory Council of the Local Elites, and local rites, were characterized by conflicts with central-local forces.
Instead, current research emphasizes the logic of the central court for local control in the 15th century and highlights the collaborative efforts of the Joseon Dynasty and local forces to establish a stable and dynamic local governance order.
While the criticism of previous research is significant in terms of correcting errors and connecting to the tradition of emphasizing the power of the state, this study suggests that it is also important to consider aspects that cannot be captured by a focus on state and central mediation. The paper argues for a deeper consideration of the problem consciousness of social history research that has been subject to critical scrutiny in the past.
First, the government attempted to strengthen the responsibility of provincial officials regarding public safety in order to prevent crimes in local areas. In doing this, the government published legal guidebooks for the officials such as Mongmin Simgam(牧民心鑑) and Yiyuji(疑獄集). In addition, the government promoted fairness as a provincial official’s core virtue.
Second, the government enforced the legalization of the Confucian norm in full swing. For example, the number of commutations was increased based on the legalized Confucian norm. Also, an assertion of severe punishment for Moral Persuasion was accepted. Additionally, the revised edition of the Kyŏngguktaejŏn of 1486 stipulated that the sons and grandsons of remarried women would not be eligible for civil or military office. These policy contents were
the outcome of what Chosŏn’s founding fathers’ Confucian ideal was realized.
In conclusion, the double policy reveals the Joseon government’s initiatives for harmonizing two conflicting political ideas.
So, the central government of Joseon tried to enlist the aid of ‘local intellectuals’ who were growing in number at the time. They appeared in local regions at the end of the Goryeo dynasty, but some of them were yet to enter the Joseon government because there were already too many officials in the government and no vacant seats, while some of them were just retired from the Goryeo government and not planning to join the Joseon court. They had the same Confucian background as the newborn Joseon government’s central officials, and has been teaching students in the areas where they were living. The Joseon central government literally mobilized them in its local education policy, to have them take over things the central government was unable to take on itself.
The government also used local intellectuals in other policies such as the “Read the Law” Act(讀法令), and in the spreading of the Samgang Haengshil-do publications. By enlisting them literally as middle agents for the government’s local enlightenment policy, the Joseon government was having them serve the process of enlightening the commoner population.
Previous studies regarded that Neo-Confucianism played an important role in the transformation of intellectual climate from the late Koryo to early Joseon era. These traditional studies established three points:1) In mainstream thought, there was a major change due to the introducing of Neo-Confucianism during the era. 2) Neo-Confucianism divided into sects in the late Koryo period. 3)The mixture of Neo-Confucian idea constructed in late Koryo spread to the Korean peninsula without any conspicuous change during the fifteenth and the sixteenth century.
Recent studies question the validity of these points:1) The change intellectual climate has nothing to do with the introducing of Neo-Confucianism. 2) There was no split in followers of Neo-Confucianism. 3) The Neo-Confucianism evolved into something else only after the beginning of the sixteenth century.
This paper concludes that recent studies have its limitations in presenting evidence and thereby confirms previous studies. Nevertheless, this paper acknowledges the merits of the new studies in that they offered new perspectives on examining the Koryo-Joseon transformation.
Yeomyo became more widespread and changed in the 14th century. By the 14th century, the proxy practice of Yeomyo was still practiced by the Nobi. However, at this time, Yeomyo`s proxy practice of Yeomyo is criticized by Neo-confucian thinker like Lee Gok. With these changes, Direct practice of Yeomyo spreads. The practice of Yeomyo in the 14th century, unlike in the past, consisted mainly of studying abroad and occurred nationwide. The spread of Yeomyo in the 14th century is related to the practice of Neo-confucian thinker who focused on ethical issues for the improvement of social problem at that time. Lee Saek"s idea is an important part of the 14th century Yeomyo settlement process. Lee Saek argued that Yeomyo`s practice was necessary to spread the Three-Years Learning. He thought that the practice of Yeomyo was more necessary to eliminate the "recall to office(起復)" custom of the Koryo Dynasty. However, that idea was different from that of Neo confucian thinker in Song Dynasty based on "Shared Spirit(同氣)" theory. Lee Saek understood the situation. Accordingly, we sought transitional alternatives in Koryo`s reality. Lee Saek`s proposal reflects an advanced perception of the consideration for Yeomyo. After Lee Saek`s suggestion, Yeomyo was firmly established as a Korean tradition.
During the Early Ming dynasty, the Emperor published a series of Imperial Morality books (勅撰勸戒書) in order to consolidate order within and without the dynasty. These books were compiled with the purpose of unifying the organization of the dynasty. Emperor Yongle (永樂帝) wanted to disseminate the Imperial Morality books throughout not only the Chinese region but also the neighboring nations of Annam and Joseon. Kings Taejong (太宗) and Sejong (世宗) maintained an abundant influx of the Imperial Morality books as part of Joseon’s proactive efforts to defuse diplomatic tensions arising
from Emperor Yongle expansive foreign policies. The Joseon dynasty generally considered Imperial Morality books to be edifying texts and
eagerly sought to devise application methods.
Imperial Morality books, incorporated with existing domestic, were used to publish the Samganghaengsildo (三綱行實圖), The Morality book of Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo is overcome the Hyohaengnok (孝行錄), the Morality book of late Koryo in many ways by the contents of the Imperial Morality books and the political and social environment of the Joseon.
Imperial Morality books influenced the compilation of The Samganghaengsildo in early Joseon. The Samganghaengsildo was a convergence of discourse in the newly introduced documents in early Ming and the position of Joseon. Compilation of the Samganghaengsildo was a project reflecting the ideals of the contemporary world, which was made in accordance with the domestic and external conditions.