K Scheme Sinhgad Technical education society

Sou. Venutai Chavan Polytechnic

Department of Information Technology

Advance Computer Network (315321)

BY
Deepak W. Chinchkhede
B. E. (CSE), M. E. (CSE - I.T.)
 Topic

1. Internet Architecture and Network Layer (8 hrs/12).

2. Routing Protocols(10/16).
3. Transport Layer Protocols (8/12).
4. Application Layer Protocols (10/16)
5. Wireless Network Technology (9/14)
 Unit 2

Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

Aim: To know how information move from on place to other with the help of Routing. Necessary to know
routing architecture, table, Queueing &switching, routing protocol, types, shai]ring, update, inter domain routing,
Border Gateway protocols. Types of protocol, ICMP, types of messages, format, error reporting message.

Course Outcome :
Analyze the packet structure of IPv4 and IPv6.
Configure Static and Dynamic Routing Protocols Using Simulators.
Illustrate functions of Transport layer protocols.
Implement Application layer protocols on a network.
Work with various Wireless Networking Technologies.

Unit Outcome:
Student will understand routing architecture, table, Queueing &switching, routing protocol, types, shairing, update, inter
domain routing, Border Gateway protocols. Types of protocol, ICMP, types of messages, format, error reporting message.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

Content
1 Explain the Mechanism of routing.
2 Differentiate – Intra and Inter domain routing.
3 Explain message structure of ICMP
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Mechanism of routing
• A routing protocol mechanism involves routers exchanging information to determine the best
paths for data packets to travel across a network.
• It is a set of rules that govern how routers communicate and update their routing tables, which
are used to forward data.
• It ensures data reaches its destination efficiently and reliably, even as network conditions
change.
• A routing protocol is a set of rules and algorithms that enable routers to communicate,
exchange network information, and determine the most efficient paths for data packets to
travel across a network.
• These protocols allow routers to automatically discover network topology, adapt to changes,
and make dynamic forwarding decisions, ensuring reliable and optimized data delivery
without manual configuration.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Mechanism of routing

They are categorized into interior gateway protocols (IGPs) for intra-network routing and
exterior gateway protocols (EGPs) for inter-network routing.
1. Route Discovery: Routers learn about network destinations by communicating with
neighboring routers and sharing routing information.
2. Path Selection: Routers use a routing metric (like hop count or bandwidth) and a routing algorithm to
calculate the best path for data packets to reach their destination.
3. Dynamic Adaptation: Routing protocols allow networks to be fault tolerant and highly
available by dynamically rerouting traffic around failed links or components.
4. Routing Table Maintenance: The best routes are stored in the router's routing table
, which is constantly updated with new information received through the protocol.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Mechanism of routing

5. Information Exchange:
• Routers use routing protocols to share information about network topology and available paths with their
neighbors.
• This information exchange can happen periodically or when changes occur in the network.
6. Building Routing Tables:
• Based on the exchanged information, routers update their routing tables, which contain information about
known networks and the best paths to reach them.
• Routing tables are used to make forwarding decisions when data packets arrive.
7. Forwarding Data Packets:
• When a router receives a data packet, it consults its routing table to determine the next hop (the next router in
the path).
• The packet is then forwarded to the designated next hop, continuing this process until the packet reaches its
final destination.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Mechanism of routing

8. Dynamic Adaptation:
• Routing protocols allow networks to adapt to changes, such as a link failure or
a new network being added.
• When changes occur, routers update their routing tables to reflect the new
network topology, ensuring that traffic is rerouted around affected areas.
9. Different Types of Routing Protocols:
Distance Vector:
• These protocols, like Routing Information Protocol (RIP), determine the best
path based on the number of hops (routers) a packet needs to travel.
Link State:
• Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) protocols, maintain a more detailed map of
the entire network topology, allowing for more intelligent path selection.
Routing protocols Design
Hybrid Protocols:
• These protocols combine elements of both distance vector and link state
protocols.
Routing protocols are the foundation for how data finds its way through complex
networks, ensuring reliable and efficient communication.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

Routing Table:
Types of routing:
• Static routing: Entries are manually configured and do not change
dynamically.
• Dynamic routing: Entries are updated automatically by routing protocols
(like RIP, OSPF) based on network conditions.
• Default routing – It is a fundamental networking concept where a router
forwards packets to a "last resort" gateway when there is no specific route for
a packet's destination IP address in its routing table

How it works ?
1. A router receives a data packet.
2. The router examines the destination IP address of the packet.
3. The router consults its routing table to find a matching route for the
destination.
4. If a match is found, the router forwards the packet to the next-hop address
associated with that route.
5. This process repeats hop by hop until the packet reaches its final
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocol
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Table:
• The process of choosing a path across one or more networks is known as Network Routing.
Nowadays, individuals are more connected on the internet and hence, the need to use Routing
Communication is essential.
• Routing chooses the routes along which Internet Protocol (IP) packets get from their source to
their destination in packet-switching networks. Need to understand of the Routing Process
along with its different types and working principles.
• Routers are pieces of N/w H/w that make these judgments about Internet routing. It is a
networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks.
• It helps to direct traffic based on the destination IP address. It ensures that data reaches its
destination.
• Router connects different N/ws, it manages data traffic between them. The Router operates at
Layer 3 (the network layer) of the OSI Model.
• It is also responsible for determining the best path for data to travel from one N/w to another.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Table:

• Routing refers to the process of directing a data packet from one node to another.

• It is an autonomous process handled by the network devices to direct a data packet to its
intended destination. Note that, the node here refers to a network device called - 'Router’.

• Routing is a crucial mechanism that transmits data from one location to another across a
network (LAN, WAN, or MAN).

• Process of routing involves making various routing decisions to ensure reliable & efficient
delivery of the data packet by finding the shortest path using various routing metrics which
we will be discussing in this article.
• Routing of a data packet is done by analyzing the destination IP Address of the packet. Look
at the below image:
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Router Architecture
Router architecture describes the internal design and organizational structure of a router,
encompassing its key components like input ports, a switching fabric, output ports, and
a routing processor, which collectively enable the device to receive, process, and
forward network packets along the most efficient paths to their destinations.
It also involves the functional separation into control, data, and management planes,
which handle routing logic, packet forwarding, and system configuration, respectively.
The Architecture of a Router. The input port can perform the physical layer operation of
terminating an incoming physical link to a router.
It carries out the data link layer functionality required to communicate with the data link
layer functionality on the opposite side of the incoming link.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Router Architecture
Given below is a diagram that explains the architecture of a router in a computer network:
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Uses of a Router
• To ensure that data is flowing to the right destination, users send the emails to the correct recipient.
• Routers defend against unwanted data, such as when an enormous file is delivered to each workstation
on the network, and also increase network performance.
• Router in networking acts as a buffer between the modem and the network and allows software
protection to reduce the danger of viruses and other malware.
• To share information with other routers connected to the network.
• Routers perform the primary role of segregating the internet network from an internal network in the
residential area or business.
• Dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP) allows the IP addresses of each computer that is joined
to the network. Most routers are enabled with DHCP protocol over the internet that is utilized for
small home and office networks.
• Routers give protection from intruders and malicious users via the internal networks and are identified
through the internet along with firewall firmware and software.
• Routers help many users to share resources like faxes, scanners, printers, and file folders on the discs
located remotely.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
The following are several variables that contribute to the successful operation of a router:
Input Port
• The input port can perform the physical layer operation of terminating an incoming physical link to a router. It
carries out the data link layer functionality required to communicate with the data link layer functionality on the
opposite side of the incoming link.
• The input port also conducts a lookup and forwarding function, ensuring that a datagram forwarded into the
router’s switching fabric arrives at the correct output port.
Output Port
• The output port stores packets from the switching fabric and sends them to the incoming link by executing link-
layer and physical-layer functions.
• As a result, the output port serves the same reverse data link and physical layer functions as the input port.
Switching Fabric
• It is a mix of hardware and software that sends data from a network node to the next node in the network via the
correct port.
Routing Processor
• Routing processors carry out routing protocols. It stores routing information as well as forwarding tables. It also
Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

Input Port

Output Port processing

Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Types of Routers
Wireless Routers
• A wireless router gives Wi-Fi connectivity to Wi-Fi devices such as laptops and smartphones.
They can also provide normal Ethernet routing. Indoor connections have a range of 150 feet,
while outdoor connections have a range of 300 feet.
Broadband Routers
• A broadband router is used to connect to the Internet by telephone and to provide high-speed
internet access via voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) technology.
Core Routers
• A core router can route data packets within a certain network but cannot route the packets
between networks. They assist in connecting all devices within a network, forming the
network’s backbone.

Edge Routers
• The most common forms of Edge Routers are low-capacity routers located at the network’s
peripherals. An edge router connects the internal network to the external networks and can send
data packets across networks. They employ the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) for
connectivity. There are two types of edge routers: label edge routers and subscriber edge
routers.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Broadband Router : A broadband router is a N/w H/w device that allows multiple
devices to share a single high-speed internet connection, acting as a central hub to manage
data flow and assign IP addresses to devices on a local network (LAN).
It connects to a modem, which provides the internet service from an Internet Service Provider
(ISP), and then distributes that connection to other computers, smartphones, and other
gadgets, often providing security features like a firewall.
Internet Connection Sharing: Takes a single broadband internet connection from the
modem and shares it with multiple devices on a local network.
Network Traffic Management: Directs "data packets" to their correct destinations within the
local N/w and to the internet, using routing tables to find the most efficient paths.
IP Address Assignment: Assigns a unique IP address to each connected device using
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), ensuring that data is sent to the right device.
Security: Provides basic security features, such as a H/w firewall, to inspect incoming traffic
and block potential threats or unauthorized access attempts.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Broadband Router :
1. Connection to Modem: Router connects to the modem, which in turn connects to the ISP.
2. Data Packet Routing: When a device on the network wants to send data, the router reads the
data packet's destination.
3. Path Determination: Using its internal routing table, the router determines the best path for
the data packet to reach its destination.
4. Forwarding: The router then forwards the data packet to the next network device or the
correct segment of the internet.
Types of Broadband Routers:
Wireless Routers: Include a built-in wireless access point to create Wi-Fi networks for devices
to connect wirelessly.
Wired Routers:Connect multiple devices using Ethernet cables, distributing the data from the
modem to wired devices.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocol
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocol
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Core Router
Core routers are powerful, high-speed, and high-
capacity network devices positioned at the heart of
a network's backbone to efficiently route data
packets between different internal network
segments and other core networks, rather than
connecting directly to end-user devices.
They are designed to handle massive data loads,
ensuring high-speed transmission and preventing
network bottlenecks.

Function:
Their primary role is to quickly forward data
packets across the network or the internet,
interconnecting various communication networks.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

Edge Router
An edge router is a networking device located at the
boundary of a network, serving as the gateway that
connects an internal network (like a home or
business) to an external network, such as the
Internet or a Wide Area Network (WAN).

It directs data packets between these different

networks, ensuring smooth communication and
often incorporating security features to protect the
internal network from external threats.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Table:
A routing table in a computer network is a data structure that stores information about network paths,
enabling routers to forward data packets efficiently. It acts like a map, guiding packets from source to
destination.
Each entry in the table typically includes the destination network address, the next hop (gateway)
address, and other relevant information like interface and metric.
• Purpose: A routing table helps routers decide the optimal path to forward data packets based on their
destination IP address.
• Structure: Each entry in the routing table maps a destination network to a next-hop address, which is
the next router or gateway the packet should be sent to.
• Information: Besides the destination and next-hop, a routing table might also contain information
like: (Netmask, Subnet Mask, Next hop, Outgoing Interface, Metric )
• Netmask: Specifies the network portion of the IP address, allowing the router to identify the network the destination
belongs to.
• Interface: Indicates which network interface the router should use to forward the packet.
• Metric: A value that represents the cost or distance to reach the destination, helping the router choose the best path
when multiple routes exist.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Table:
Imagine a network with several routers. A packet destined for a computer on a
different network will travel through multiple routers.
Each router will use its routing table to determine the best path for the packet to
take towards its final destination.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Table
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Queueing and Switching
Switching moves a received packet from its input port to the correct output port, using a
switching fabric, while queuing is the process of temporarily storing packets in buffers
(queues) when an output port is busy, a necessary step for managing congestion and
determining packet transmission order and priority.

Queuing Disciplines (Algorithms)

• These determine how packets are served from the queues: First-In, First-Out (FIFO)
: The default and simplest method, servicing packets in the order they arrive.
• Priority Queuing (PQ): Divides memory into multiple queues based on packet priority,
always processing high-priority queues before lower-priority ones.
• Weighted Fair Queuing: A more complex method designed to provide delay guarantees
or fair bandwidth allocation, though not detailed in these results, it's mentioned as an
alternative to FIFO.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Queueing and Switching :
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Queueing and Switching : Model of Router
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

Routing Protocol Queueing and Switching

The process of sending packets from one host to another within a LAN is called switching.
The process of doing that between two or more LANs is called routing.
A switch is a Layer 2 device (Data-Link Layer), while a router is a Layer 3 device (Network
Layer).
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

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 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocol Queueing and Switching
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Queueing and Switching

In a routing architecture, switching and queuing are crucial for efficient data
forwarding. Switching handles the physical movement of data packets between network
interfaces on the same local network, while routing determines the optimal path for packets
to travel between different networks.
Queuing manages the flow of packets within a router, preventing congestion and ensuring
efficient transmission.

• Function: Switches data packets within a local network (LAN).

• Mechanism: Switches use MAC addresses to forward traffic to the correct destination
within the LAN.
• Example: Moving data between computers on your home network.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Queueing and Switching
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocols:
A routing protocol is a set of rules and algorithms that enable routers to communicate, exchange network information,
and determine the most efficient paths for data packets to travel across a network.
These protocols allow routers to automatically discover network topology, adapt to changes, and make dynamic
forwarding decisions, ensuring reliable and optimized data delivery without manual configuration.
They are categorized into interior gateway protocols (IGPs) for intra-network routing and exterior gateway protocols
(EGPs) for inter-network routing.
• Route Discovery: Routers learn about network destinations by communicating with neighboring routers and sharing routing
information.

• Path Selection: Routers use a routing metric (like hop count or bandwidth) and a routing algorithm to calculate the best path for
data packets to reach their destination.

• Dynamic Adaptation : Routing protocols allow networks to be fault tolerant and highly available by dynamically rerouting traffic
around failed links or components.

• Routing Table Maintenance : The best routes are stored in the router's routing table, which is constantly updated with new
information received through the protocol
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocols:

• Route calculation and selection, continuous information exchange with neighbors,

• Adaptation to network changes,
• Loop prevention, convergence (reaching stable routing state)
• Scalability for different network sizes.
• It is applied in computer networks, from small home networks to the global internet,
• Automatically discover network routes, calculate the best paths for data packets, and
• Ensure reliable, efficient data transmission by adapting to network changes.
• Their primary application is to manage data flow by intelligently guiding packets
between routers to minimize latency, balance network traffic.
• Maintain connectivity even when network paths fail.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocols
Intradomain routing
Intradomain routing is the process (manages traffic )
by which packets are routed within a single network or
autonomous system (AS), using Interior Gateway
Protocols (IGPs) like OSPF or RIP. intra-domain
routing focuses on local connectivity, handles data
within a single administrative network (AS)

Unlike interdomain routing, which handles routing

between different autonomous systems (like different
Internet Service Providers), intradomain routing
focuses on efficiently finding the best paths for data
flow and recovering from network failures inside a
specific, administratively controlled domain.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Protocols

Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs)

Inter-domain routing

Inter-domain routing is the process of exchanging

routing information between different Autonomous
Systems (ASes), which are independently managed
networks, to direct data packets across the Internet. Inter-
domain routing focuses on global connectivity across

Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs)

networks, handles routing between different
administrative networks.

It determines the "AS path"— the sequence of ASes a

packet must traverse to reach its destination—and relies
on Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) like the
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) to make these path
decisions based on policies and attributes.
Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)

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 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Difference between Inter-domain and Intra-domain routing.
Intra domain is any protocol in which Routing algorithm works only within domains on the other hand Inter domain is any
protocol in which Routing algorithm works within and between domains. S.NOINTRADOMAIN ROUTINGINTERDOMAIN
ROUTING
1. Routing algorithm works only within domains. Routing algorithm works within and between domains.
2. It needs to know only about other routers within their domain. It needs to know only about other routers within and
between their domains.
3. Protocols used in intradomain routing are known as Interior-gateway protocols. Protocols used in interdomain routing are
known as Exterior-gateway protocols.
4. In this Routing, routing takes place within an autonomous network. In this Routing, routing takes place between the
autonomous networks.
5. Intradomain routing protocols ignores the internet outside the AS(autonomous system).Interdomain routing protocol
assumes that the internet contains the collection of interconnected AS (autonomous systems).
6. Some Popular Protocols of this routing are RIP (resource information protocol)and OSPF (open shortest path first).Popular
Protocols of this routing is BGP(Border Gateway Protocol) used to connect two or more AS (autonomous system).1
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Intra-Domain Routing
It is known as interior gateway routing, is the process of forwarding data packets within a single
autonomous system (AS), which is a network or group of networks under a single administrative control.

It focuses on routing within a specific network, using protocols like OSPF or RIP, to determine the best
paths for packet delivery inside that domain.

Static (Non-Adaptive) Routing Algorithms are a class of routing algorithms in computer networks
where routing decisions are pre-determined and do not change dynamically based on real-time network
conditions like traffic congestion or topology changes.

Dynamic (Adaptive) Routing Algorithms are a class of routing algorithms that make routing decisions
based on real-time network conditions. Unlike static routing, where paths are predetermined, adaptive
algorithms dynamically adjust routing paths in response to changes in network topology, traffic load, or
link failures.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Distance Vector Routing
Distance-vector routing is a type of
dynamic routing protocol where each router
maintains a routing table with the best
known distance to every destination,
measured by a metric like hop count.

Routers periodically exchange this routing

table information with their direct neighbors
to learn and propagate optimal routes across
the network.

The "distance" refers to the metric, and the

"vector" indicates the next-hop router for a
given destination.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Distance vector routing
It is a dynamic routing protocol where routers share
their routing tables with their immediate neighbors to
determine the shortest path to each destination in a
network.
Each router maintains a distance vector, which is a
table showing the best known distance to all other
destinations and the path to reach them.
These tables are updated by exchanging information
with neighboring routers.
Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Information Protocol version 2 (RIPv2):
It is an interior gateway protocol (IGP) used in computer networks
to exchange routing information within an autonomous system (AS).

It is a distance-vector protocol, meaning it determines the best path

to a destination based on the number of hops.

RIPv2 is an enhanced version of the older RIPv1, addressing some

of its limitations, particularly in supporting classless addressing and
subnet masks.

RIPv2 sends the routing table to a multicast address to reduce

network traffic. Additionally, RIPv2 uses authentication for security
-- a feature missing from RIPv1.

RIPng is an extension of RIPv2 made to support IPv6, as the

previous versions only ran in IPv4.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Information Protocol version 2 (RIPv2):
Features
• classless routing,
• Updates of the network are exchanged periodically
• multicast updates,
• authentication,
• Updates (routing information) are always broadcast
• Router always trust on routing information received from neighbor routers this is know known as
routing on rumors and
• additional fields in routing updates.

CIDR (Classless Inter-Domain Routing) and VLSM (Variable Length Subnet Masking) are complementary
networking techniques that work together to enable efficient IP address allocation and routing, especially for
IPv4.

It supports VLSM and CIDR, uses multicast address 224.0.0.9 for updates, and can be configured with
authentication to enhance security.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Information Protocol version 2
(RIPv2):

• A working example of RIPv2 configuration

involves setting up multiple routers and enabling
RIPv2 on their interfaces, then observing how
routes are exchanged and updated.

• Scenario: Two routers, R1 and R2, are directly

connected and running RIPv2. R1 has a local
network 192.168.1.0/24, and R2 has a local
network 192.168.2.0/24. They are connected via a
link with addresses 10.0.0.1/30 on R1 and
10.0.0.2/30 on R2.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Information Protocol version 2 (RIPv2):
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Routing Information Protocol version 2
RIPv2 builds upon RIP version 1 by adding features like classless routing, support for
subnetting with Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM), and authentication.

It uses multicast address

224.0.0.9 for updates and
includes additional fields in
its message format, such as
next hop and route tag.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Comparison between RIPv1 and RIPv2

Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) Variable Length Subnet Masks (VLSM)

 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Link-state routing
Link-state routing is a routing protocol where each router shares information about its
directly connected links with all other routers in the network, creating a map of the network
topology. This allows each router to independently calculate the shortest path to any
destination, leading to efficient data transmission.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Link-state routing
• The basic concept of link-state routing is that every node constructs a map of the
connectivity to the network in the form of a graph, showing which nodes are connected to
which other nodes.
• Each node then independently calculates the next best logical path from it to every possible
destination in the network.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Link-state routing
Link-state routing builds routing tables by first constructing a complete map of the
network topology and then using that map to calculate the shortest paths to all
destinations.
Each router in the network maintains a link-state database (LSDB) that describes the
network's topology, including the state of its links and those of its neighbors.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Link-state routing
Link state routing is an interior protocol that updates the routers inside the autonomous
system i.e it is an intradomain protocol. The link-state routing was introduced to overcome
the shortcomings of the distance vector routing protocol.

What is Link State Routing Protocol? - Introduction and Functioning - Binary Terms
https://binaryterms.com/link-state-routing.html
Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPF is a link-state routing protocol used in IP networks to determine the most efficient path for data
to travel between routers. It's an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) known for its scalability and
efficiency in large and complex networks.
OSPF uses the Shortest Path First (SPF) algorithm, also known as Dijkstra's algorithm, to calculate the
best routes, and it employs a hierarchical structure using areas to manage network complexity.

Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an IP

routing protocol that uses a mathematical
algorithm to calculate the most efficient
path to direct traffic on IP networks
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Types of Links
A routing protocol defines the rules and procedures for forwarding data packets between
networks, while a point-to-point link is a direct connection between two network
devices. Routing protocols are used to manage how data travels across a larger network,
while point-to-point links provide the foundation for those connections.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Types of Link
Point to point link

A point-to-point link in routing protocols refers to a direct connection between two network devices
(routers) without any intermediary devices or hosts. This type of link is common in scenarios where a
dedicated connection is needed between two specific points, such as a WAN link connecting two
routers in different locations.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Transient link

In routing protocols, a transient link

refers to a temporary or dynamic
connection between routers, often
within a local network (LAN) or when
using a specific routing protocol like
OSPF.

It signifies a period where routers are

actively exchanging routing
information to establish or adjust
network paths.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Stub link
A stub link in networking, specifically within the context of routing protocols like OSPF and
IS-IS (Intermediate System to Intermediate System), refers to a network link that has only one
path for data to travel to and from other networks. It acts as an endpoint, meaning traffic
enters and exits through the same point, and it typically doesn't participate in routing traffic
between other networks.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Virtual link
When the link between two routers is broken, the administration may create a virtual link
between them using a longer path that probably goes through several routers.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Graphical Representation
In networking, graphical representation refers to visualizing a network's structure and
components using diagrams, charts, or other visual aids. This representation helps in
understanding the network's topology, data flow, and relationships between different elements,
making it easier to analyze, troubleshoot, and optimize the network.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
OSPF packets are the messages exchanged between routers using the Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF) routing protocol to discover neighbors, establish adjacencies, and exchange
routing information. These packets contain various information used by OSPF to build and
maintain a network topology map, allowing routers to calculate the best paths for forwarding
data.
OSPF is an IP routing protocol that uses a
mathematical algorithm to calculate the most
efficient path to direct traffic on IP networks
OSPF uses five different packet types for neighbor
discovery, routing information exchange, and
maintenance: Hello, Database Description (DBD),
Link State Request (LSR), Link State Update
(LSU), and Link State Acknowledgment
(LSAck). These packets facilitate the establishment
and operation of OSPF neighbor adjacencies and
the distribution of routing information.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
OSPF Command Header
OSPF is an interior gateway protocol (IGP) for routing Internet Protocol (IP) packets within a
single routing domain, such as an autonomous system. It gathers link state information from
available routers and constructs a topology map of the network.

All OSPF packets share a common

OSPF Header of 24-bytes. This
header allows the receiving router to
validate and process the packets. The
format of common OSPF header is-
Version- 2 (1-byte) Type- It specifies
the type of OSPF packet.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
OSPF Process
• From a single router perspective, OSPF is a process that runs on the device alongside all
other processes. It uses a set of tables, databases, and messages to exchange information
with other routers.
• The ultimate goal of the routing process is to update the device's routing table with the best
paths, as shown in Figure 2.
In the OSPF protocol, the Two-
Way state signifies the
establishment of bidirectional
communication between two
neighboring routers. This means
each router has received and
acknowledged the other's Hello
packets, indicating that they can
both "hear" each other.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Features of OSPF
• It is an open standard routing protocol.
• It is an interior gateway protocol (IGP).
• It runs within a single routing domain, such as an autonomous system (AS).
• It uses a concept called areas to optimize network traffic and simplify administration.
• It uses the Dijkstra algorithm to compute the shortest route to each destination.
• It runs over IP protocol but does not use a transport protocol (such as TCP or UDP) to encapsulate its
data.
• It encapsulates its data directly in IP packets with protocol number 89.
• It uses its own error detection and correction mechanism.
• It is highly flexible, versatile, and scalable.
• It offers unlimited hop counts.
• It supports VLSM/CIDR.
• It supports multi-vendor deployment.
• It minimizes routing update traffic.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Advantages of OSPF
• It is an open standard protocol. It can run on most routers.
• It uses the SPF algorithm to provide a loop-free topology.
• It uses both trigger updates and incremental updates to provide fast convergence.
• It supports VLSM and route summarization for a hierarchical design.
• It supports both versions of the IP protocol. OSPFv2 supports IPv4 and OSPFv3 supports IPv6.
• It supports load balancing with equal-cost routes for the same destination.
• It supports networks of all sizes.

Disadvantages OSPF
• It needs lots of information to calculate the best route for each destination. To store this
information, OSPF consumes more memory than other routing protocols.
• It runs the SPF algorithm to calculate the best route, which requires extra CPU processing.
• It is complex to configure and difficult to troubleshoot. Only experienced network administrators
can configure it.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Inter-domain routing
It is the process of forwarding network traffic between different autonomous
systems (ASes), which are independent networks managed by different
organizations. It involves protocols like BGP to determine the most efficient
paths for data transmission across the internet. Essentially, it's how your data
finds its way from your network to another, possibly across the globe.

Path vector routing is a network routing algorithm where routers exchange

information about the paths they know to various destinations. It's similar to
distance vector routing but instead of just distances, routers share the full path (a
vector of nodes) to each destination. This allows for more control and policy
enforcement, particularly in large, interconnected networks like the internet.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Path Vector Routing Protocol
• A path vector routing protocol is a more recent concept compared to both a distance vector protocol and the
link state routing protocol.
• Entire idea about the path vector protocol is often tightly coupled to Border Gateway Protocol (BGP).
• In this section, we will present the general idea behind the path vector protocol mechanism; thus, it is important
to distinguish and decouple the generic path vector protocol presented here from BGP4, a specific instance of a
path vector protocol.
• First and foremost, a path vector protocol has its roots in a distance vector protocol. We already know that there
are several problems with the basic distance vector protocol. Some examples are looping, count to infinity,
unreliable information exchange, and so on. Recall that both the loop-free distance vector protocol and the
link state protocol use reliable delivery for exchange of routing information; this itself takes care of certain
undesirable behavior.
• In fact, you will find that all modern routing protocols now use a reliable delivery mechanism for
routing information exchange along with a hello protocol for initialization. Thus, we will start with the built-in
assumption that a path vector protocol uses a reliable delivery mechanism for information exchange related to
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Path Vector Routing Protocol
• In a path vector protocol, a node does not just receive the distance vector for a particular
destination from it neighbor; instead, a node receives the distance as well as the entire path
to the destination from its neighbor.
• The path information is then helpful in detecting loops. For example, consider the basic
distance vector protocol: at time t, node i receives the distance cost D‾kji(t) from its
neighbor k for all known destinations j, as known to node i.
• In the case of a path vector protocol, node i receives both the distance and the entire path
list from its neighbor k for each of the known destination nodes, that is, both D‾kji(t) and
the list of nodes, denoted by Pkji(t), from k to j as known to node i. A node is thus required
to maintain two tables: the path table for storing the current path to a destination and the
routing table to
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP-4)
• It is the current standard routing protocol for the internet.
• It’s an exterior gateway protocol (EGP used for routing between different Autonomous Systems (AS).
• Internal Border Gateway Protocol (iBGP) is a routing protocol used within a single Autonomous
System (AS) to exchange routing information between routers.

• BGP-4 enables routers to exchange

routing and reachability information,
facilitating the global routing of IP
datagrams.
• It ensures that all routers within the
AS have a consistent view of the
network topology and can forward
traffic efficiently within the AS.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
External Border Gateway Protocol (EBGP)
It is a routing protocol used to exchange routing information between different ASes on the
internet.
It acts as the Commn link between N/ws belonging to different organizations or the internet as a
whole.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Border Gateway Protocol version 4 (BGP-4)
BGP message header is a fixed-size 19-byte structure present at the beginning of every BGP
message.
This header contains information about the message itself, regardless of its type (Open,
Update, Keepalive, Notification, or Route-Refresh).
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
BGP utilizes four primary message types for communication: OPEN, UPDATE,
NOTIFICATION, and KEEPALIVE. These messages facilitate the establishment and
maintenance of BGP sessions, as well as the exchange and management of routing information
between different networks.

BGP Open message is a crucial part of establishing a BGP session between two routers. It's the
first message sent after a TCP connection is established, and it contains information that must be
agreed upon for the session to proceed.
Key elements within the Open message include the BGP version, the AS number, the router's hold
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
BGP Update messages are used by Border Gateway Protocol routers to exchange network
reachability information, specifically to announce or withdraw routes. These messages are
crucial for maintaining the routing table and ensuring proper communication between
different networks. They are sent over a TCP connection, typically on port 179.

BGP Keepalive message is a type of message used to maintain BGP sessions by periodically confirming the
liveness of a BGP peer. These messages are sent at intervals determined by the negotiated hold time, ensuring
the session remains active and preventing it from timing out.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
ICMP is a network layer protocol used for error reporting and diagnostics in TCP/IP networks. It's a
companion to the IP protocol, providing a way for devices to communicate issues and information
about network connectivity.

ICMP is essential for tasks like pinging (testing reachability) and troubleshooting network problems.
ICMP error message format includes a header and a data section. The header is 8 bytes long and
contains fields like Type, Code, and Checksum.

The Type field identifies the specific error, like "Destination Unreachable" or "Time Exceeded". The
Code field provides more detail about the error.

The Checksum field is used for error detection.

The data section provides additional information, often including the IP header and data of the original
packet that caused the error
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
ICMP error message format includes a header with Type, Code, Checksum, and an unused
field, followed by a variable-length data section. The Type and Code fields indicate the
specific error, while the Checksum verifies the message's integrity. The data section often
includes the IP header and data of the original packet that triggered the error.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
ICMP error message format includes a header with Type, Code, Checksum, and an unused
field, followed by a variable-length data section. The Type and Code fields indicate the
specific error, while the Checksum verifies the message's integrity. The data section often
includes the IP header and data of the original packet that triggered the error.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
ICMP messages are primarily divided into two types: Error-Reporting Messages and Query Messages.

• Error-reporting messages, like Destination Unreachable and Time Exceeded, inform devices of
problems with packet delivery, while query messages, such as Echo Request (used by ping) and
Timestamp Request, are used to gather specific network information and diagnose connectivity
issues.
Query Messages
• Echo Request (Type 8): Sent by a host to test network connectivity with a target device.
• Echo Reply (Type 0): Sent by the receiving device to confirm receipt of an Echo Request.
• Timestamp Request (Type 13): Requests the timestamp from a target device.
• Timestamp Reply (Type 14): Provides the timestamp to the requesting device.
• Router Advertisement (Type 9): A router uses this to announce its presence and capabilities.
• Router Solicitation (Type 10): A host uses this to ask routers to send a Router Advertisement.
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
Error-Reporting Messages
• Destination Unreachable (Type 3): Sent by a router or device to indicate a network
problem, such as the destination being unreachable.
• Time Exceeded (Type 11): Sent when a packet's Time To Live (TTL) value expires,
typically indicating that a packet is looping or has reached the end of its path, a key
component of traceroute.
• Parameter Problem (Type 12): Indicates an error with a field in the IP header.
• Redirect (Type 5): Sent by a router to inform a source device that a better path to the
destination exists.
• Source Quench (Type 4): (Deprecated) Instructs the sending host to slow down its data rate
Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
 Unit 2 Routing Protocols (10 hrs /16)
Assignment No 2

Ques 1. Explain inter-domain and intra-domain in details.

Ques 2. Explain routing table.
Ques 3. Describe distance vector routing protocol with example.
Ques 4. Compare between link state routing and distance vector routing.
Ques 5. Explain RIP in detail.
Ques 6. With the help of diagram describe OSPF frame format.
Ques 7. Explain ICMP protocol with its header format.
Ques 8. Describe BGP packet format.

Last date of submission is 12 Sept 25