Network Access Layer: Introduction
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Interacts with the network application software
Transforms data into a recognizable format for
the application layer
Controls the dialogues (connections) between Data/Stream
devices
Responsible for any reliability, flow control and
Segment
error control
Responsible for message being sent from original Packet
sender to final destination
Responsible NIC-to-NIC communications on the Frame
same network
Responsible transmitting the bits over the Bits
physical medium (wired or wireless)
Note
These layers and protocols, and the relationship between them will become
more evident as you learn about each of the layers and its protocols
Network Interface Cards (NICs) connect a device to the network.
Ethernet NICs are used for a wired connection whereas WLAN
(Wireless Local Area Network) NICs are used for wireless.
Network Access Layer: Introduction
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Physical Layer: Introduction
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Physical
Layer
The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that
make up a data link layer frame across the network media.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Media
The physical layer produces the representation and groupings of bits
for each type of media as:
Copper cable: The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
Fiber-optic cable: The signals are patterns of light.
Wireless: The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards
Upper OSI layers are performed in software designed by software engineers and computer
scientists.
TCP/IP suite are defined by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) in RFCs
Purpose of the Physical Layer
Physical Layer Standards
Standard
Networking Standards
organization
• ISO 8877: Officially adopted the RJ connectors (e.g., RJ-11, RJ-45)
ISO • ISO 11801: Network cabling standard similar to EIA/TIA 568.
• TIA-568-C: Telecommunications cabling standards, used by nearly all voice, video and
data networks.
• TIA-569-B: Commercial Building Standards for Telecommunications Pathways and
EIA/TIA Spaces
• TIA-598-C: Fiber optic color coding
• TIA-942: Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers
ANSI • 568-C: RJ-45 pinouts. Co-developed with EIA/TIA
ITU-T • G.992: ADSL
• 802.3: Ethernet
IEEE • 802.11: Wireless LAN (WLAN) & Mesh (Wi-Fi certification)
• 802.15: Bluetooth
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Physical
Media Frame Encoding Technique Signalling Method
Components
• UTP • Manchester Encoding • Changes in the
• Coaxial • Non-Return to Zero (NRZ) techniques electromagnetic field
• Connectors • 4B/5B codes are used with Multi- • Intensity of the
• NICs Level Transition Level 3 (MLT-3) electromagnetic field
• Ports signaling • Phase of the
Copper cable • Interfaces • 8B/10B electromagnetic wave
• PAM5
• Single-mode Fiber • Pulses of light • A pulse equals 1.
• Multimode Fiber • Wavelength multiplexing using • No pulse is 0.
• Connectors different colors
• NICs
Fiber Optic
• Interfaces
cable • Lasers and LEDs
• Photoreceptors
• Access Points • DSSS (direct-sequence spread- • Radio waves
• NICs spectrum)
Wireless • Radio • OFDM (orthogonal frequency division
media • Antennae multiplexing)
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Physical Layer Fundamental Principles
Encoding or line encoding - Method of converting a stream of data
bits into a predefined "codes”.
Signaling - The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical,
or wireless signals that represent the "1" and "0" on the media.
Physical Layer: Introduction
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Bandwidth and Throughput
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data.
Typically measured in kilobits per second (kb/s) or megabits per
second (Mb/s).
Fundamental Principles of Layer 1
Throughput
Throughput is the measure of the actual transfer of bits across the media over a
given period of time limited by latency, delay and other factors.
Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the specified
bandwidth in physical layer implementations.
http://www.speedtest.net/
http://ipv6-test.com/speedtest/
Bandwidth and Throughput
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Data Link Layer: Introduction
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
The Data
Link
Layer
NIC to NIC communications on the same network.
Reminder of encapsulation/decapsulation
Data Link IP TCP HTTP Data Link
Data Trailer
Header Header Header Header
Data Link Data Link
IP Packet
Header Trailer
Data Link Data Link
IP Packet
Header Trailer
Data Link Data Link
IP Packet
Header Trailer
Data Link IP TCP HTTP Data Link
Header Header Header Header
Data Trailer
Layer 2 Addresses
Purpose of the Data Link Layer Network
Data Link Sublayers
LLC Sublayer
Data Link
MAC Sublayer
Physical
Data Link layer has two sublayers (sometimes):
Logical Link Control (LLC) – Software processes that provide services to the Network layer
protocols (IPv4, IPv6).
Media Access Control (MAC) - Media access processes performed by the hardware.
Provides Data Link layer addressing and framing of the data according to the protocol in use.
Data Link Layer: Introduction
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Data Link Layer: Accessing the Media
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Topologies
Controlling Access to the Media
Media
Access
Control
Media Access Control - Regulates the placement of data frames onto the media.
The method of media access control used depends on:
Media sharing
Do more than two nodes share the media?
If so, how? (Switches, hubs, etc.)
Point-to-Point vs multi-access Multi-access
Point-to-Point
Point-to-Point networks
Only two nodes
Protocols: PPP, HDLC, Frame Relay
Multi-access networks (LANs)
Multiple nodes
Subnets mask range depends upon the number of hosts (nodes)
Protocols: Ethernet, 802.11 (wireless), Frame Relay Multipoint
Multi-access Topology
A logical multi-access topology - Enables a number of nodes to
communicate by using the same shared media.
Ethernet LANs – Connected by Ethernet switches (legacy hubs)
“Every node “may” see all the frames that are on the medium.
Data Link Destination Address denote which device the frame is for.
Multi-access Addressing
2222 4444 6666
3333 5555
6666 2222
Multi-access networks require an address to specifically identify the destination.
Much more when we discuss Ethernet
Point-to-Point topology
11111111
A point-to-point topology connects two nodes directly together.
The media access control protocol can be very simple.
Frames from one devices are for the device at the other end.
Point-to-point topologies, with just two interconnected nodes, do not require special addressing.
Data Link Layer: Accessing the Media
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Full and Half Duplex
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Duplex Transmissions
Simplex Transmission: One way and one way only.
Half-duplex Transmission: Either way, but only one way at a time.
Ethernet hubs use half-duplex
Full-duplex Transmission: Both ways at the same time.
Ethernet NICs and switches use full-duplex by default
Most serial links are full-duplex
More later with Ethernet
Full and Half Duplex
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Data Link Layer: Frame Structures
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
Data Link Layer
Layer 2 Frame Structure
Data Link Frame Fields
Data Link frame header fields may include:
Start Frame field - Indicates the beginning of the frame
Source and Destination address fields - Indicates the source
and destination nodes on the media
Priority/Quality of Service field - Indicates a particular type of
communication service for processing
Type field - Indicates the upper layer service contained in the
frame
Logical connection control field - Used to establish a logical
connection between nodes
Physical link control field - Used to establish the media link
Flow control field - Used to start and stop traffic over the media
Congestion control field - Indicates congestion in the media
Framing- The Trailer
The signals on the media could be subject to:
Interference
Distortion
Loss
This would change the bit values that those signals represent.
The trailer is used to determine if the frame arrived without error.
Error detection.
The Frame Check Sequence (FCS) field is used to determine if errors occurred in the
transmission and reception of the frame.
Cyclic Redundancy Check
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) is commonly used.
Sending node includes a logical summary of the bits in the frame.
Receiving node calculates its own logical summary, or CRC.
Compares the two CRC values.
Equal – Accepts the frame
Different – Discards the frame
Ethernet Protocol for LANs
Ethernet is a family of networking technologies that are defined in the IEEE 802.2 and
802.3 standards.
Uses 48 bit addressing (Ethernet MAC addresses) for Source and Destination
More later!
Point-to-Point Protocol for WANs
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a protocol used to deliver frames between two nodes.
Wireless Protocol for
LANs
802.11 is an extension of the IEEE 802 standards.
It uses the same 48-bit addressing scheme as other 802 LANs.
Contention-based system using a Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance
(CSMA/CA)
Data Link Layer: Frame Structures
Rick Graziani
Cabrillo College
graziani@cabrillo.edu
