Chapter 2
Frequency Distributions
Chapter 2 Learning Outcomes
1 • Understand frequency distribution
2 • Organize data into regular frequency distribution
3 • Organize data into grouped frequency distribution
4 • Understand data presented in a table
5 • Organize data into frequency distribution graphs
6 • Understand data that presented in a graph
Introduction to Frequency
Distributions
• A frequency distribution is
– An organized tabulation
– Showing the number of individuals located in
each category on the scale of measurement
• Can be either a table or a graph
• Always shows
– The categories that make up the scale
– The frequency, or number of individuals, in
each category
Frequency Distribution Tables
• A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the
number of individuals located in each category on the
scale of measurement.
• Structure of Frequency Distribution Table
– Categories in a column (usually highest to lowest)
– Frequency count next to category
• To compute ΣX from a table
– Convert table back to original score or
– Compute ΣfX
• A frequency distribution can be structured either as a
table or as a graph, but in either case, the distribution
presents the same two elements:
– The set of categories that make up the original
measurement scale.
– A record of the frequency, or number of individuals in
each category.
• Thus, a frequency distribution presents a picture of how
the individual scores are distributed on the measurement
scale—hence the name frequency distribution.
Frequency distribution table
Scores: 5,4,4,3,3,3,2,2,2,1
X f
5
4
3
2
1
Proportions and Percentages
Proportions Percentages
• Measures the fraction of the • Expresses relative
total group that is frequency out of 100
associated with each score
f
f percentage p (100) (100)
proportion p N
N
• Can be included as a
• Called relative separate column in a
frequencies because they frequency distribution table
describe the frequency ( f )
in relation to the total
number (N)
Frequency, Proportion
and Percent in a Table
Scores: 5,4,4,3,3,3,2,2,2,1 N= ?
X f p = f/N % = p(100)
5 1 10%
1/10 = .10
4 2 2/10 = .20 20%
3 3 3/10 = .30 30%
2 3 3/10 = .30 30%
1 1 1/10 = .10 10%
f f
proportion p percentage p (100) (100)
N N
Learning Check
• Use the Frequency Distribution X f
5 2
Table to determine how many
4 4
subjects were in the study 3 1
A • 10 2 0
1 3
B • 15
C • 33
D • Impossible to determine from table
Learning Check - Answer
• Use the Frequency Distribution X f
5 2
Table to determine how many
4 4
subjects were in the study 3 1
A • 10 2 0
1 3
B • 15
C • 33
D • Impossible to determine from table
Learning Check X f
5 2
• Is each of these statements 4 4
3 1
True or False for the
2 0
Frequency Distribution shown? 1 3
• More than 50% of the individuals
T/F scored above 3.
• The proportion of scores in the
T/F lowest category was p = 3.
Learning Check - Answer X f
5 2
4 4
3 1
2 0
1 3
• Six out of ten individuals scored
True above 3 = 60% = more than half.
• A proportion is a fractional part;
False 3 out of 10 scores = 3/10 = .30
Grouped Frequency Distribution
Tables
• When the number of categories is very large,
they are combined, or grouped, in the table
• Information is lost when categories are
grouped or combined
– Individual scores cannot be retrieved
– The wider the interval, the more information
is lost
Rules for Grouped Frequency
Distribution Tables
• About 10 class intervals
• Width of interval should
be simple number
(2,5,10,20 etc.)
• Bottom score in interval
should be a multiple
of the width of the
interval
• Intervals should be the
same width
An instructor has obtained the set of N = 25 exam scores shown here. To help
organize these scores, we will place them in a frequency distribution table. The
scores are:
Frequency Distribution Graphs
• Pictures of data available in tables
– All have two axes
– X-axis (abscissa) has categories of
measurement scale increasing left to right
– Y-axis (ordinate) has frequencies increasing
bottom to top
• General principles
– Both axes should have value “0” where they meet
– Height should be about ⅔ to ¾ of length
Frequency
FrequencyDistribution
DistributionGraphs
Graphs
4.0
3.5
Senior
3.0
2.5
Junior
2.0
GPA
1.5 Freshmen
1.0
0.5
0.0
Spring Summer Fall Winter
Creating a Histogram
• List all numeric scores on the X-axis
– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw bars above each class interval
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Width of bar corresponds to real limits
• Grouped Frequency Histogram
– Uses grouped intervals
• Modified Histogram
– Creates bar of correct height by drawing a
stack of blocks, one per case
Frequency Distribution Histogram
widtht of bar
extends to the
real limits
Hight of bar
corresponds
frequency
An example of frequency distribution histogram: a set of quiz scores is presented
in a frequency distribution table and in a histogram.
Frequency Distribution Histogram for Grouped Data
Units of measurement is given
En axample of frequency distribution histogram for grouped data. The set of
children’s heights is presented in a frequency distribution table and in a
histogram.
Frequency Distribution Histogram (Modified) : Block for Each
Score
X f
6 1
5 2
4 4
3 3
2 3
1 1
A frequency distribution in which each individual is represented by a block placed
directly above the individual’s score.
Frequency Distribution Polygons
• List all numeric scores on the X-axis
– Include those with a frequency of f = 0
• Draw a dot above the center of each interval
– Height of bar corresponds to frequency
– Connect the dots with a continuous line
– Close the polygon with lines to the Y = 0
point
• Can also be used with grouped frequency
distribution data
Frequency Distribution Polygon
Polygon
Distribution table
Frequency Distribution Polygon for Grouped Data
Polygon Distribution table
midpoint
Graphs for Nominal or Ordinal Data
• For non-numerical values (scores),
a bar graph is used
– Similar to a histogram
– Spaces between adjacent bars indicates
discrete categories without order (nominal)
or of unmeasurable width (ordinal)
Bar graph
Bar graph
Color Asthetics Rating
30
25
Rating (percent)
20
15
10
0
Blue Yellow Red Green
Color Categories
Graphs for Population Distributions
• When population is small, scores for each
member are used to make a histogram
• When population is large, scores for each
member are not possible
– Graphs based on relative frequency are used
– Graphs use smooth curves to represent
distribution, and do not use exact scores
– Smoot curves indicates that you do not connect
a series of dots (real frequencies) but instead
are showing the relative changes.
Bar Graph of Relative Frequencies
A frequency distribution showing the relative
frequency for two types of fish. Notice that
the exact number of fish is not reported; the
graph simply says that there are twice as
many bluegill as there are bass.
Graphs for Population Distributions
• One commonly occuring population
distribution is
• Normal
– Symmetric with greatest frequency in the middle
– Common structure in data for many variables
Population Distribution of IQ: Normal Curve
Distribution of
scores. We will refer
this frequently in this
book. So when hear,
have the picture of
frequency
distribution graph
Use and Misuse of Graphs
X
Year # of Homocides
2005 42 Homocide rate is
high and rising
2006 44
rapidly.
2007 47
2008 49
Homocide rate is low
and steady over
years.
The Shape of a
Frequency Distribution
• Researchers describe a distribution’s shape
in words rather than drawing it
– Symmetrical distribution: each side is a mirror
image of the other
The Shape of a
Frequency Distribution
• Researchers describe a distribution’s shape in words rather than
drawing it
– Skewed distribution: scores pile up on one side and taper off in a
tail on the other
• Tail on the right (high scores) = positive skew
• Tail on the left (low scores) = negative skew
Learning Check
• What is the shape of
this distribution?
A • Symmetrical
B • Negatively skewed
C • Positively skewed
D • Discrete
Learning Check - Answer
• What is the shape of
this distribution?
A • Symmetrical
B • Negatively skewed
C • Positively skewed
D • Discrete
Learning Check
• Decide if each of the following statements
is True or False.
• A treatment center for children measured the
T/F marital status of their parents (single, married,
divorced, etc.) A histogram would be
appropriate for these data.
• A treatment center for children measured the
T/F time they spent playing with other children (in
minutes). A histogram would be appropriate
for these data.
Learning Check - Answer
• Marital Status is a nominal
False variable; a bar graph is needed.
• Time is measured continuously
True and is an interval variable.
Answers to Learning Check
1. Sketch a frequency distribution histogram and frequency distribution polygon
for the data in the following table:
X f
5 4
4 6
3 3
2 1
1 1
Answers to Learning Check
2. Describe the shape of the distribution. Negatively skewed
These are scores from the
psychology test given to high
school students.Please
summarize data in all way.
5,4,4,4,4,4,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,3,2,2,2,
2,1,1
X f cf c% p (f/n)
(f/n)100)
X f cf c% p (f/n)
(f/n)*100)
5 1 20 100% 0.05
4 5 19 95% 0.25
3 8 14 70% 0.40
2 4 6 30% 0.20
1 2 2 10% 0.10
High School Psychology Test Scores
10
8
Frequency
0
1 2 3 4 5
Scores
High School Psychology Test Scores
10
8
Frequency
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Scores
Percentiles, Percentile Ranks, and
Interpolation
• Although the primary purpose of a frequency distribution is to provide a
description of an entire set of scores, it also can be used to describe the
position of an individual within the set. Individual scores, or X values,
are called raw scores. By themselves, raw scores do not provide much
information.
• For example, if you are told that your score on an exam is X = 43, you
cannot tell how well you did relative to other students in the class. To
evaluate your score, you need more information, such as the average
score or the number of people who had scores above and below you.
With this additional information, you would be able to determine your
relative position in the class.
• Because raw scores do not provide much information, it is desirable to
transform them into a more meaningful form. One transformation that
we will consider changes raw scores into percentiles.
Percentiles, Percentile Ranks, and
Interpolation
The rank or percentile rank of a particular score is
defined as the percentage of individuals in the distribution
with scores at or below the particular value.
When a score is identified by its percentile rank, the
score is called a percentile.
Suppose, for example, that you have a score of X = 43 on
an exam and that you know that exactly 60% of the class
had scores of 43 or lower. Then your score X = 43 has a
percentile rank of 60%, and your score would be called
the 60th percentile.
• What is the 95th percentile? (this has to be score)
• (Answer: X = 4.5.)
• What is the percentile rank for X = 3.5? (this has to be
percent)
• (Answer: 70%.)
1. A single interval is measured on two separate scales
2. The endpoints of the interval are known for each scale.
3. You are given an intermediate value on one of the scales. The problem is to find
the corresponding intermediate value on the other scale.
3. The interpolation process requires four steps:
a. Find the width of the interval on both scales.
b. Locate the position of the intermediate value in the interval. This position
corresponds to a fraction of the whole interval:
Use the same fraction to determine the corresponding position on the other scale.
First, use the fraction to determine the distance from the top of the interval:
Use the distance from the top to determine the position on the other scale
Using the following distribution of scores, we will find the percentile rank
corresponding to X = 7.0:
Interpolation: asumes a regular lineer change between the two
known values.
1. Find the width of interval on both
2. Locate the position of the intermediate value in the interval. This corresponds
to a fraction of the whole interval
Fraction = distance from the top of the interval / interval width
3. Use this to determine the distance from the top of the interval on the other
scale
distance = fraction * width
4. Use the distance from the top determine the position on the other scale.
scores percentages
7.5 44%
interval 7.0 ? interval
6.5 20
scores percentages
7.5 44%
interval=1 7.0 ? interval=24
6.5 20
Score is 0.5 point from the top so the percentage must be same.
0.5 x 24=12 points
For the percentage, top level is 44%, so 12 point down is
44%-12%=32%
A score of X=7.0 corresponds to a percentile rank of 32%.
X f cf C%
25-29 1 20 100%
20-24 1 19 95%
15-19 5 18 90%
10-14 9 13 65%
5-9 4 4 20%
What is 50th percentile?
x C%
14.5 65% 65-50=15
14.5-9.5=5 15/45=1/3
interval=5 ? 50% interval=45
1/3 X 5=3/5=1,67 9,5 20%
14.5-1.67=12.83
