Chapter 3

E l e c t ro n i n At o m

Mia
Section 1
Atom sturcture
Atom structure
Experiment of Subatomic particles

We can deduce the electric charge of subatomic particles

■ a proton beam is deflected away

from a positively charged plate;

■ an electron beam is deflected

towards a positively charged plate;

■a beam of neutrons is not deflected;

this is because they are uncharged.

in electric fields
Rutherford‘s Gold Foil Experiment

 Alpha particles are helium nuclei (+)

 particles were fired at a thin sheet of gold foil

 Particles hits on the detecting screen

Rutherford‘s Gold Foil Experiment
Atom structure
Atom structure
Bohr's Theory : The model of the atom required that the electrons be
confined to specific allowed orbits.
 Atom structure

Quantum Mechanics Model

• How the electrons are arranged
is based on the energy of
each orbital.

• Electrons will fill the orbitals that

have the lowest energy first

• quantum energy

electron clound
Atom structure
Energy level
The structure of an atom Outside the nucleus, particles
called electrons move
around in regions of space
orbitals
called

（ atomic
orbital ）
nucleon:
two types of
protons and neutrons
Application
We can also make use
of these electron levels.

For example, causing

an electron to move
between energy levels
can cause energy to be
emitted or absorbed.

Sometimes, we can see

this in the form of
light.
Isotopes
All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons.
However, they may have different numbers of neutrons.
Mass spectrum
90.92

Abundance / %

8.82

0.26

19 20 21 22 23 m/z

Out of every 100 atoms 90.92 are Ne , 0.26 are

20 21
Ne and 8.82 are Ne
22

Average = (90.92 x 20) + (0.26 x 21) + (8.82 x 22)

100
Relative atomic mass = 20.18
Exercise
Exercise
Section 2
Electron energy level
Quantum Energy
Principal quantum shells

principal energy levels

principal quantum shells n
The lowest energy level, n = 1, is
closest to the nucleus

The electrons in quantum shells further

away from the nucleus have more energy
and are held less tightly to the nucleus.
electronic structures

Each principal quantum shell

( principal energy level) can hold a
maximum number of electrons:

2
1 1
Ionisation energy, ΔHi
Ionization is a process in which
atoms lose or gain electrons and
need energy become ions.

The general symbol for ionisation

energy is ΔHi . Its units are kJ mol–1

electron Ionisation energies are measured

under standard conditions.
pressure ： 100 kPa / 1 atm
temperature ： 298 K or 25 °C.
The first ionisation energy
The 1st ionization (I1) energy of an element is the energy required to
remove one electron from a gaseous atom. in one mole to form one
mole of gaseous 1+ ions.

M(g) → M+(g) + e-
The first ionisation energy
Successive ionisation energies The sequence of ionisation energies we can
continue to remove electrons from an atom
until only the nucleus is left.

1
Successive ionisation energies
1. For each element, the successive ionisation energies increase.
in Group 1 the values of ΔHi1 are:
■ Li = 519 kJ mol –1
■ Na = 494 kJ mol –1
■ K = 418 kJ mol –1
2. The 1st ionisation energy decreases as you go down a group

3. In same period ， ionisation energy increases as the proton

number increases in general

4. There is a big gap between some successive ionisation energies.

For N ----- the 5th and 6th ionisation energies.
For Na-----1st and 2nd ionisation energies.
Exercise

• This is because the charge on the ion gets greater as each electron is removed.

• there is a greater attractive force between p+ in the nucleus and the remaining e-

• more energy is needed to overcome these attractive forces.

 1st Ionisation Energy decreases down the Group
Na K
Li
Group

further ΔHi decrease

519 kJ mol-1 494 kJ mol-1

418 kJ mol-1
1st Ionisation Energy shows a ‘general increase’ across a given period

Hydrogen Helium
period

bigger ΔHi increase

1310 kJ mol-1
2370 kJ mol-1
Shielding effect
Group

2,8,8
2,8
2

attraction
Factors influence ionisation energies

• The size of the nuclear charge

bigger ΔHi increase

• Distance of outer electrons from

the nucleus further ΔHi decrease

• Shielding effect of inner electrons

further ΔHi decrease
successive ionisation energies
two shell

same shell

two shell

Na nuclear charge same

Exercise

The successive ionisation energies, Δ H i , of an element x are shown

in Table 3.4. Which group in the Periodic Table does x belong to?

Answer : There must be six electrons in the outer shell of x. So, element x must be in Group VI
Patterns across a period
 Section 3
Subshells and atomic orbitals
Quantum subshells
The principal quantum shells(except n=1), are split into different number
subshells (sublevels), symboled by s, p or d. it

subshell Name orbitals

S

Px Py Pz

d d d d d
Shapes of the atomic orbitals

S
s orbitals are spherical

Px Py Pz

p orbitals, px , py and
pz , have'lobes' along
the x, y and z axes.
d d d d d
 Subshells energy
PRINCIPAL ENERGY SUB LEVELS

3d ＞ 4s
PRINCIPAL SUB LEVELS LEVELS
ENERGY LEVELS
4f
4f
4d
4d

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4
4 4p
4p
3d
4s 4s
3 3p
3d
3s
3 3p
3s
2p
2
2p 2s
2
2s

1 1s 1 1s

Orbitals are not filled in numerical order because the principal energy levels get closer together as you get further from the
nucleus. This results in overlap of sub levels. The first example occurs when the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbitals.
Subshells energy
4f

4d
4

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p

3d
4s use box represent orbitals
3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
Filling the shells and orbitals
The subshell with the lowest energy, the 1s, is therefore filled first, followed
by successively higher in energy
Filling the shells and orbitals
Aufbau principle
1. filling each subshell in order of increasing
energy

Hund’s rule
2. in order to minimise repulsion, electrons will
occupy separate orbitals in the same subshell

Pauli exclusion principle

3. An atomic orbital can be occupied by one or
two electrons （ spin opposite)

e e e e e e e

ee ee ee

ee ee ee
Filling the shells and orbitals
4. An electron is represented by an arrow.

5. The direction of the arrow represents the 'spin' of the electron.

6. When two electrons in an orbital, the ‘spins’ of the e are opposite,

 Principle of Filling the shells and orbitals

1. Aufbau principle : the lowest energy sub-levels are occupied

first

2. Pauli exclusion principle : each orbital may contain no more

than two electrons. The spins of electrons in the same orbital
must be opposite

3. Hund’s rule : single electrons occupy all empty orbitals

within a sub-level before they start to form pairs in orbitals.
Exercise 1 ： Filling the orbitals of the element

Exercise 2: write the electronic configurations

of the element of third periods
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
HYDROGEN
4d
4 1s1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Hydrogen atoms have one
3d electron. This goes into a
4s vacant orbital in the lowest
available energy level.
3 3p

3s

‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
HELIUM
4d
4 1s2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Every orbital can contain 2
3d electrons, provided the
4s electrons are spinning in
opposite directions. This is
3 3p based on...
3s PAULI’S EXCLUSION
PRINCIPLE
The two electrons in a
2p helium atom can both go in
2 the 1s orbital.
2s

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
LITHIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
1s orbitals can hold a
3d maximum of two electrons
4s so the third electron in a
lithium atom must go into
3 3p the next available orbital of
higher energy. This will be
3s
further from the nucleus in
the second principal
energy level.
2p
2 The second principal level
2s has two types of orbital (s
and p). An s orbital is lower
in energy than a p.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
BERYLLIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Beryllium atoms have four
3d electrons so the fourth
4s electron pairs up in the 2s
orbital. The 2s sub level is
3 3p now full.
3s

2p ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
2 Principle
Principle
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
BORON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
As the 2s sub level is now
3d full, the fifth electron goes
4s into one of the three p
orbitals in the 2p sub level.
3 3p The 2p orbitals are slightly
higher in energy than the
3s
2s orbital.

2p ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
2 Principle
Principle
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CARBON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The next electron in
3d doesn’t pair up with the
4s one already there. This
would give rise to
3 3p repulsion between the
similarly charged species.
3s
Instead, it goes into
another p orbital which
means less repulsion,
2p lower energy and more
2 stability.
2s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
1 1s MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NITROGEN
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p3

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Following Hund’s Rule,
3d the next electron will not
4s pair up so goes into a
vacant p orbital. All three
3 3p electrons are now
unpaired. This gives less
3s
repulsion, lower energy
and therefore more
stability.
2p
2
2s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
1 1s MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
OXYGEN
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p4

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
With all three orbitals half-
3d filled, the eighth electron in
4s an oxygen atom must now
pair up with one of the
3 3p electrons already there.
3s

‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
FLUORINE
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p5

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electrons continue to
3d pair up with those in the
4s half-filled orbitals.

3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NEON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electrons continue to
3d pair up with those in the
4s half-filled orbitals. The 2p
orbitals are now
3 3p completely filled and so is
the second principal
3s
energy level.
In the older system of
describing electronic
2p
2 configurations, this would
2s have been written as 2,8.

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SODIUM - ARGON
4d
4 With the second principal
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS
4p energy level full, the next
electrons must go into the
3d
next highest level. The
4s third principal energy level
3 3p contains three types of
orbital; s, p and d.
3s The 3s and 3p orbitals are
filled in exactly the same
way as those in the 2s and
2p 2p sub levels.
2
2s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SODIUM - ARGON
4d
4

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

Na 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
4p
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
3d
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
4s
Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
3 3p
P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
3s
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
2p
2 Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
2s
Remember that the 3p
configurations follow Hund’s
1 Rule with the electrons
1s
remaining unpaired to give
more stability.
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
POTASSIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
In numerical terms one
3d would expect the 3d
4s orbitals to be filled next.

3 3p However, because the

principal energy levels get
3s closer together as you go
further from the nucleus
coupled with the splitting
into sub energy levels, the
2p
2 4s orbital is of a LOWER
2s ENERGY than the 3d
orbitals so gets filled first.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
CALCIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
As expected, the next
3d electron pairs up to
4s complete a filled 4s orbital.

3 3p This explanation, using

sub levels fits in with the
3s position of potassium and
calcium in the Periodic
Table. All elements with an
-s1 electronic configuration
2p
2 are in Group I and all with
2s an -s2 configuration are in
Group II.

1 1s ‘Aufbau’
‘Aufbau’
Principle
Principle
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
SCANDIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
With the lower energy 4s
3d orbital filled, the next
4s electrons can now fill the
3d orbitals. There are five d
3 3p orbitals. They are filled
according to Hund’s Rule -
3s
BUT WATCH OUT FOR
TWO SPECIAL CASES.
2p
2
2s HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
TITANIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The 3d orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s rule
4s so the next electron
doesn’t pair up but goes
3 3p into an empty orbital in the
same sub level.
3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
VANADIUM
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The 3d orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s rule
4s so the next electron
doesn’t pair up but goes
3 3p into an empty orbital in the
same sub level.
3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f

4d
CHROMIUM
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
One would expect the
3d configuration of chromium
4s atoms to end in 4s2 3d4.

3 3p To achieve a more stable

arrangement of lower
3s energy, one of the 4s
electrons is promoted into
the 3d to give six unpaired
electrons with lower
2p
2 repulsion.
2s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
1 1s MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
MANGANESE
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The new electron goes into
3d the 4s to restore its filled
4s state.

3 3p

3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
IRON
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s Rule.
4s They continue to pair up.

3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
COBALT
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s Rule.
4s They continue to pair up.

3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
NICKEL
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
Orbitals are filled
3d according to Hund’s Rule.
4s They continue to pair up.

3 3p

3s

HUND’S
HUND’S RULE
RULE
OF
OF
2p MAXIMUM
MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
MULTIPLICITY
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
COPPER
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
One would expect the
3d configuration of chromium
4s atoms to end in 4s2 3d9.

3 3p To achieve a more stable

arrangement of lower
3s energy, one of the 4s
electrons is promoted into
the 3d.
2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
ZINC
4d
4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p
The electron goes into the
3d 4s to restore its filled state
4s and complete the 3d and
4s orbital filling.
3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
GALLIUM - KRYPTON
4d
4 The 4p orbitals are filled in
INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS
4p exactly the same way as
those in the 2p and 3p sub
3d
levels.
4s
3 3p

3s

2p
2
2s

1 1s
 THE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS OF THE FIRST 36 ELEMENTS

4f
GALLIUM - KRYPTON
4d
4 Prefix with…

INCREASING ENERGY / DISTANCE FROM NUCLEUS

4p 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
3d
Ga - 4p1
4s
Ge - 4p2
3 3p
As - 4p3
3s
Se - 4p4
Br - 4p5
2p
2 Kr - 4p6
2s
Remember that the 4p
configurations follow Hund’s
Rule with the electrons
1 1s remaining unpaired to give
more stability.
Electronic configurations
Aufbau principle
Electronic configurations
Electronic configuration of K
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Filling the 3d subshell

scandium (Sc) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
zinc (Zn) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

Chromium and copper

(Cr) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
(Cu) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Orbitals and the Periodic Table
Electronic configurations
Groups 1 and
2 have outer Groups 3 to 18 (apart from He) have
electrons in outer electrons in a p subshell
an s subshell.

electrons to the d
subshells ； transition
elements.
 Orbitals and the Periodic Table
Groups 3 to 18 (apart from He) have
outer electrons in a p subshell

electrons to the d
subshells ； transition
Groups 1 and elements.
2 have outer
electrons in
an s subshell.

The Periodic Table can be split into blocks of elements

'noble' gas core
This ‘noble gas core’represents the electronic configuration :

1s2 [He]

1s2 2s2 2p6 [Ne]

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 [Ar]

(Li) [He] 2s1

(Sc) [Ar] 3d1 4s2

(Zn) [Ar] 3d5 4s2

Exercise
Electronic configuration of ions

Example: what is the electron structure of O2-.?

1. Count number of electrons in atom O 8 For negative ions add
electrons.
2. Fill sub-levels as for uncharged atom 1s22s22p6
2. Fill sub-levels as for uncharged ion 1s22s22p63s2

Example: what is the electron structure of Na+?

1. Count number of electrons in atom Na 11 For positive ions
remove electrons.
2. Fill sub-levels as for uncharged atom 1s22s22p63s1
3. Fill sub-levels as for uncharged ion 1s22s22p6
Electronic configuration of transtion mental ions
When transition metals form ions, it is the 4s electrons that
are removed before the 3d electrons.

3d84s2
Exercise

answer
answer

answer
answer
 Section 4
ionisation energies across a period
Patterns across a period
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy

HYDROGEN EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
Despite
Despite having
having aa nuclear
nuclear
charge
charge of of only
only 1+,
1+,
Hydrogen
Hydrogen has has aa relatively
relatively
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
high
high 1st
1st Ionisation
Ionisation Energy
Energy
as
as its
its electron
electron is
is closest
closest to
to
the
the nucleus
nucleus and
and has
has no
no
shielding.
shielding.

1s

ATOMIC NUMBER
1
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
HELIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
Helium
Helium has
has aa much
much higher
higher
value
value because
because of of the
the extra
extra
proton
proton in
in the
the nucleus.
nucleus. The
The
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
additional
additional charge
charge provides
provides
aa stronger
stronger attraction
attraction for
for the
the
electrons
electrons making
making them
them
harder
harder to
to remove.
remove.

1s

ATOMIC NUMBER
2
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
LITHIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
There
There isis aa substantial
substantial drop drop
in
in the
the value
value forfor Lithium.
Lithium.
This
This is
is because
because the the extra
extra
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
electron
electron hashas gone
gone into
into an
an
orbital
orbital in
in the
the next
next energy
energy
level.
level. Despite
Despite the the increased
increased
nuclear
nuclear charge,
charge, thethe
effective
effective nuclear
nuclear charge
charge is is
1s less
less because
because of of the
the
shielding
shielding effect
effect of
of filled
filled
inner
inner 1s
1s energy
energy level.
level. The
The
2s
2s electron
electron is is also
also further
further
away
away from
from thethe nucleus.
nucleus. ItIt isis
held
held less
less strongly
strongly andand
needs
needs less
less energy
energy for for
1s 2s
removal.
removal.

ATOMIC NUMBER
3
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
BERYLLIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value for
for Beryllium
Beryllium is is
higher
higher than
than for
for Lithium
Lithium due
due
to
to the
the increased
increased nuclear
nuclear
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
charge.
charge. There
There isis no
no extra
extra
shielding.
shielding.

1s

1s 2s

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
4
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
BORON
EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
There
There is
is aa DROP
DROP in in the
the value
value for
for
Boron.
Boron. This
This is
is because
because the
the extra
extra
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
has gone into
electron
electron
one of the 2p orbitals..
The
The increased
increased shielding
shielding makes
makes the
the
electron
electron easier
easier to
to remove
remove
1s ItIt was
was evidence
evidence such
such as
as this
this that
that
confirmed
confirmed the the existence
existence of
of sub-shells.
sub-shells.
IfIf there
there hadn’t
hadn’t been
been any
any sub-shell,
sub-shell, the
the
value
value would
would have
have been
been higher
higher than
than
1s 2s
that
that of of Beryllium.
Beryllium.
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
5
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
CARBON EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Carbon
Carbon duedue to
to the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The
The extra
extra electron
electron does
does not
not
pair
pair up
up with
with the
the previous
previous oneone
in
in the
the same
same orbital
orbital but
but
occupies
occupies another
another of of the
the 2p
2p
1s
orbitals.
orbitals. This
This gives
gives aa lower
lower
energy
energy configuration
configuration
1s 2s 2p because
because there
there is
is less
less
repulsion
repulsion between
between the the
1s 2s
negatively
negatively charged
charged particles.
particles.
This
This is
is known
known as as Hund’s
Hund’s
1s 2s 2p Rule.
Rule.

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
6
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
NITROGEN EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Nitrogen
Nitrogen due
due to
to the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
As
As before,
before, the
the extra
extra electron
electron
goes
goes into
into the
the vacant
vacant 2p
2p
orbital.
orbital. There
There are
are now
now three
three
1s 2s 2p
unpaired
unpaired electrons.
electrons.
1s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
7
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
OXYGEN EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

There
There is
is aa DROP
DROP inin the
the value
value for
for Oxygen.
Oxygen.
The
The extra
extra electron
electron has
has paired
paired up
up with
with one
one
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1 of
of the
the electrons
electrons already
already inin one
one of
of the
the 2p
2p
The repulsive
orbitals.
orbitals.

force beteen the

the two
two paired-
paired-
1s 2s 2p up
up electrons
electrons means
means that
that less
less energy
energy is
is
1s
1s 2s 2p required
required to
to remove
remove one
one ofof them.
them.
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
spin-pair repulsion
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
8
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
FLUORINE EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION
The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Fluorine
Fluorine due
due to
to the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The
The 2p2p orbitals
orbitals are
are almost
almost
1s 2s 2p full.
full.

1s 2s 2p
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
9
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
NEON EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p The
The value
value increases
increases again
again
for
for Neon
Neon due
due toto the
the
increased
increased nuclear
nuclear charge.
charge.
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
The
The 2p
2p orbitals
orbitals are
are now
now full
full
1s 2s 2p so
so the
the next
next electron
electron in
in will
will
have
have to
to go
go into
into the
the higher
higher
1s 2s 2p
energy
energy 3s3s orbital.
orbital.
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s

ATOMIC NUMBER
10
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
SODIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p There
There isis aa substantial
substantial dropdrop in
in
the
the value
value forfor Sodium.
Sodium. This This is
is
because
because the the extra
extra electron
electron
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
has
has gone
gone into
into anan orbital
orbital in
in
1s 2s 2p the
the next
next energy
energy level.
level.
Despite
Despite the
the increased
increased
nuclear
nuclear charge,
charge, the the effective
effective
1s 2s 2p nuclear
nuclear charge
charge is is less
less
1s because
1s 2s 2p because of of the
the shielding
shielding
effect
effect of
of filled
filled inner
inner 1s,1s, 2s
2s
1s 2s 2p
and
and 2p
2p energy
energy levels.
levels.
1s 2s

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
11
 Variation in 1st Ionisation Energy
1s
MAGNESIUM EXPLANATION
EXPLANATION

1s 2s 2p The
The value
value for
for Magnesium
Magnesium is is
higher
higher than
than for
for Sodium
Sodium due
due
to
to the
the increased
increased nuclear
nuclear
1st IONISATION ENERGY / kJmol-1
charge.
charge. There
There isis no
no extra
extra
1s 2s 2p shielding.
shielding.
The
The trend
trend is
is similar
similar to
to that
that at
at
1s 2s 2p
the
the start
start of
of the
the 2nd
2nd period.
period.
1s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s
1s 2s 2p

1s 2s
1s 2s 2p 3s

ATOMIC NUMBER
12
End
H 1s1
ELECTRONIC
He 1s2
CONFIGURATIONS
Li 1s2 2s1
OF ELEMENTS 1-30
Be 1s2 2s2
B 1s2 2s2 2p1
C 1s2 2s2 2p2
N 1s2 2s2 2p3
O
1s2 2s2 2p4
F
1s2 2s2 2p5
Ne
1s2 2s2 2p6
Na
Mg 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
Al 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
Si 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
P 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
S 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
Cl 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
K 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
Ca 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Sc
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
Ti
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
V
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d2
Cr
Mn
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d3
Fe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5
Co 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d5
Ni 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Cu 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
Zn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d8
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10