Programming for Problem Solving (PPS)

Chapter-1 Introduction to ‘C’

Programming:
What is a Program?
• Program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when
executed by a computer.

• What are Programming Languages?

• A programming language is a set of commands, instructions and other
syntax use to create a software
program. Programming languages are used in computer programming to
implement algorithms.
 Introduction to C Programming Language
• C is a general-purpose, high-level programming language, which means it can be
used to write a wide range of programs—from operating systems to games.
• High-level: Easier for humans to read and write than machine code.
• General-purpose: Not limited to specific applications.
• Low-level features: Allows direct memory access using pointers.
• Procedural: Follows a step-by-step approach using functions.
• Compiled: Code is converted into machine language before execution.
• Structured: Code is divided into blocks (functions), making it easier to manage.
Common Usage: Operating systems, embedded systems, and compilers.
1. High Level Language
• Meaning:
A high-level language provides abstraction from the hardware. This means you don’t
need to worry about managing memory locations, CPU registers, or writing binary
code.
Why it matters:
• You can write commands like printf(“Hello”) instead of complicated machine-level
instructions.
• It uses English-like keywords (e.g., if, while, for, return).
• Easier to learn and debug than assembly or machine code.
2. General-Purpose
• Meaning:
C is not restricted to solving a specific type of problem or limited to one domain. You
can use it for a wide variety of applications.
Where it can be used:
• System software (OS, drivers)
• Embedded systems (firmware)
• Application software (compilers, databases)
• Scientific computing
• Games and graphics engines
Why it matters:
• You learn one language and can apply it almost anywhere.
3. Low-Level Features
• Meaning:
Even though C is a high-level language, it gives access to low-level operations like
memory manipulation through pointers.
What this lets you do:
• Access and modify memory directly using addresses.
• Write efficient and fast code.
• Communicate with hardware-level resources.
Why it matters:
• Critical for writing OS kernels, drivers, and performance-critical code.
4. Procedural
• Meaning:
C follows the procedure-oriented approach. The program is divided into functions
or procedures that run step-by-step.
Characteristics:
• Executes instructions in the order they are written.
• Uses main() as the starting point.
• Functions are used to divide tasks (e.g., input(), process(), output()).
Why it matters:
• Easier to write, understand, and maintain code.
• Encourages logical thinking and problem-solving through small steps.
5. Compiled
• Meaning:
C is a compiled language, meaning the program you write (source code) is first
converted into machine code by a compiler before it can be executed.
Steps:
1. Write code in .c file.
2. Compile it using a compiler like GCC.
3. The compiler converts it into .exe (Windows) or a.out (Linux).
4. Run the executable.
Why it matters:
• Faster execution than interpreted languages.
• Errors are caught during compilation.
• No need for the compiler to run the program again.
6. Structured
• Meaning:
C supports structured programming, which means organizing code into blocks,
mainly using functions, loops, conditionals, etc.
Benefits:
• Increases readability and reusability.
• Reduces errors and complexity.
• Makes debugging easier.
Why it matters:
• Students learn to break problems into smaller tasks (modular design).
• Helps in managing large codebases.
 History of C Language
• Developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at Bell Labs.
• Evolved from:
-BCPL → Basic Combined Programming Language
-B (developed by Ken Thompson)
-C (a successor to B)
• UNIX OS was originally written in assembly, then rewritten in C (1973), making it
portable.
• Standardization:
-ANSI C (1989) – American National Standards Institute version
-ISO C – International Standardization, later versions like C99, C11, C18.
Application Areas of C
• C is used in various fields due to its performance and control over
hardware:
• System Programming: Operating systems like UNIX, Linux kernels.
• Embedded Systems: Microcontrollers, firmware for smart devices.
• Game Development: Core engines and performance-critical parts.
• Compilers/Interpreters: GCC and others are written in C.
• GUI Applications: Though rare today, some interfaces still use C.
• Database Systems: MySQL is developed in C.
• Network Programming: Socket programming, protocol implementations.
• Scientific & Engineering: Simulations and numerical analysis.
1. System Programming
• Used for: Operating Systems, Kernels, Drivers, File Systems
• C was originally developed to write UNIX, and even today, parts of Linux,
Windows, and macOS kernels are written in C.
• It gives access to low-level operations like memory and I/O ports.
• System programs need fast execution, direct hardware access, and
reliability, all of which C provides.
2. Embedded Systems
• Used for: Microcontrollers, IoT devices, Smart appliances
• In embedded systems, memory and processing power are limited. C is
ideal because it creates compact and fast executables.
• C can communicate directly with hardware registers and sensors via
memory addresses.
• Used in automobiles, washing machines, smart TVs, thermostats,
medical devices, etc.
• Example:
Firmware of a microwave oven or heartbeat monitor uses C to control its
operations.
3. Game Development
• Used for: Game engines, Physics calculations, Graphics rendering
• C (and C++) powers the core engine of many games because it's
extremely fast.
• Games need real-time performance, especially in physics engines and
rendering pipelines.
• C is often used to build custom graphics engines, AI algorithms, or
low-level optimizations.
• Example:
The Unreal Engine (originally) and early versions of games like Doom and
Quake used C.
4. Compilers and Interpreters
• Used for: Building programming tools, language compilers
• Many popular compilers like GCC (GNU Compiler Collection) are written
in C.
• C helps in building the compiler's lexer, parser, optimizer, and code
generator.
• Interpreters for other languages also often rely on a C-written runtime.
• Example:
Python’s interpreter(CPython) is written in C.
5. GUI Applications
• Used for: Creating desktop applications with graphical interfaces
• C was widely used for GUI-based applications in early Windows and
Linux.
• Even though high-level languages (like Java, C#, Python) are used today,
C libraries like GTK and WinAPI are still written in C.
• Developers may use C for the backend logic and then connect to a GUI
frontend.
• Example:
The GIMP image editor uses C and the GTK+ toolkit.
6. Database Systems
• Used for: Core development of relational databases
• C provides fine control over memory and file systems, which is
essential for database engines.
• Since databases need high-speed processing for large data sets, C is an
ideal choice.
• It also allows efficient indexing, query parsing, and memory pooling.
• Example:
MySQL, one of the most widely used relational databases, is written in C
and C++.
7. Network Programming
• Used for: Protocol implementation, server/client architecture
• Network programs often deal with sockets, ports, and protocols (like
TCP/IP).
• C provides low-level socket access and the ability to work closely with
the OS's networking stack.
• Many web servers, proxies, and firewalls are built using C.
• Example:
Nginx, a powerful web server used by millions of websites, is written in C.
8. Scientific & Engineering Applications
• Used for: Simulations, modeling, numerical computation
• These applications require high performance, precision, and custom
data handling.
• C supports integration with mathematical libraries like BLAS, LAPACK,
etc.
• Used in climate modeling, molecular simulation, signal processing,
and more.
• Example:
NASA’s scientific computing applications have used C for performance-
sensitive simulations.
 Features of C language
• Simplicity: Few keywords and clean syntax.
• Efficiency: Closer to hardware, thus fast.
• Portability: Write on one machine, run on another with minor changes.
• Modularity: Code is organized in functions.
• Rich Library: Standard libraries support I/O, math, etc.
• Pointer Support: Direct access to memory.
• Structured Programming: Encourages code reuse and readability.
1. Simplicity: Few Keywords and Clean
Syntax
What it means:
• C has a small set of 32 keywords (like if, while, for, int, return) which are easy to
learn.
• Its syntax is straightforward, and programs follow a logical structure with minimal
special symbols or confusing rules.
Why it matters:
• Beginners can focus more on problem-solving and logic than memorizing syntax.
• Helps in writing concise and clean code.
2. Closer to Hardware, Thus Fast
What it means:
C gives you low-level access to memory and hardware through pointers, bitwise
operators, and direct register access (via inline assembly).
There is no overhead like in languages with garbage collection or runtime interpreters.
Why it matters:
C programs run faster than those written in high-level languages like Python or Java.
Ideal for performance-critical systems like OS kernels, games, or embedded
software.
 3. Portability: Write Once, Compile
Anywhere
What it means:
• C code can be compiled and run on any hardware platform with a C compiler.
• You may need to make minor changes (like header files or hardware-specific
code), but the logic remains the same.
Why it matters:
• C is used to develop cross-platform applications.
• The same C program can run on Windows, Linux, or even embedded systems like
Raspberry Pi or microcontrollers.
 4. Modularity: Code is Organized in
Functions
What it means:
• C encourages breaking a large program into smaller units called functions.
• Each function handles a specific task, like input, processing, or output.
Why it matters:
• Makes code easier to debug, read, and reuse.
• Promotes divide and conquer approach in programming.
 5. Rich Library: Standard Libraries Support
I/O,
What Math,
it means: etc.
• C provides built-in libraries for input/output, string handling, memory allocation,
math, etc.
• These are available through header files like stdio.h, math.h, stdlib.h.

Why it matters:
• Saves time for the programmer—you don’t need to write everything from scratch.
• Increases productivity and functionality
 6. Pointer Support: Direct Access to
Memory
What it means:
• C allows you to create pointers, which are variables that store memory addresses.
• This gives you fine-grained control over how data is accessed and stored.
Why it matters:
• Crucial for building dynamic data structures (linked lists, trees).
• Enables efficient memory management.
• Needed in system-level programming (e.g., memory-mapped I/O, device drivers).
 7. Structured Programming: Encourages
Code
What Reuse
it means: and Readability
• C follows a structured, top-down design approach.
• It uses control structures (if, for, while, switch) and functions to create logical
blocks of code.
Why it matters:
• Encourages students to write clean, readable, and maintainable code.
• Easy to follow the program flow from start to finish.
• Supports code reuse through functions and modular design.
Structure of C Program
#include <stdio.h> // Preprocessor directive
int main() { // Main function
printf("Hello World"); // Statement
return 0; // Exit status
}
Parts of C Program
• #include <stdio.h>  Includes standard I/O functions.
• Main() function  Entry point of every C program.
• Printf() function  Outputs data to the console.
• Return 0;  Exits the program, returning 0 to the OS.
Other parts in programs:
• Variable Declarations
• Statements & Expressions
• Comments (// or /* */)
Execution Flow of a C program
• Writing: Code is written in a (.c) file extension.
• Preprocessing: Preprocessor handles (#include), macros, etc..
• Compilation: Code is translated into assembly code.
• Assembly: Translates assembly into machine-level object code.
• Linking: Links code with libraries, creates executable.
• Execution: Executable is run on the system.
Reading a Character
char ch;
ch = getchar(); // Reads a single character from user input
• getchar() waits for the user to press a key and stores it in ch.
• Useful for reading individual characters or key presses.
Writing a Charater
char ch = 'A’;
putchar(ch); // Outputs a single character
• putchar() prints a single character.
• Simple and fast way to output characters.
Formatted Input
• Taking input with formatting (e.g., numbers, text):
int a;
scanf("%d", &a); // Reads formatted data (int here)
• scanf() reads user input.
• %d tells the compiler to expect an integer.
• &a means we’re giving the address of variable a to store the
input.
Formatted Output
• Displaying values with text:
int a = 10;
printf("Value of a: %d", a); // Prints formatted output
• printf() shows the value of ‘a’ along with text.
• %d will be replaced by the value of ‘a’ in the output.
Common Format Specifier
• %d  Integer
• %f  Float
• %c  Character
• %s  String
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