Digital Aerial Survey : Theory and Practice
Objective analysis: digital image software
Focus on Aerial Photography, GIS, and Remote Sensing
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2 Introduction
Digital image software is vital for processing and interpreting
imagery.
Applications include art, advertising, photography, science, and
especially aerial imagery analysis.
Photoshop and specialized GIS/remote sensing tools offer
comprehensive image analysis options.
Vital for professionals working in environmental, scientific, and
geographic fields.
Aim:
To objectively evaluate and compare various digital image software
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applications based on performance, usability, features, and overall
effectiveness in different use cases.
Objectives:
To define and explain the purpose of digital image software.
To identify and select popular digital image software tools for analysis
(e.g., Adobe Photoshop, GIMP, Affinity Photo, etc.).
To analyze each software based on key criteria such as:
User interface and usability
Available features and tools
System performance and compatibility
Pricing and accessibility
To compare the software tools and highlight their strengths and
weaknesses.
To provide a conclusion and recommend the most suitable software for
specific user needs or professional fields
Adobe Photoshop
4 Widely used by various professionals: artists, advertisers,
photographers, scientists, etc.
Popular for enhancing and analyzing aerial photography data.
Independent analysis of RGB channels
Offers tools for:
Histogram balancing
Colour selection
Image correction (like cos⁴ correction)
Metrication
Terrain reflectance analysis
Densitometry
Independent analysis of red, green, and blue channels
Adjusting brightness, colour balance, and contrast
Noise and pixelation reduction
5 Filters tools:
Noise reduction
Pixelation correction
Smoothing (low pass)
Sharpening (high pass, unsharp masking)
Specialized Digital Image Software
Designed for desk-top image stations
Dedicated to photogrammetry, GIS, remote sensing
Other software used in aerial imagery analysis:
6 R-Wel DMS – photogrammetry (mapping system)
Arc-Info / Arc-View – cartography
ERDAS IMAGINE – GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
PCI EASI/PACE – remote sensing and GIS
Image Station SSK – photogrammetry
VirtuoZo – digital photogrammetry, GIS, and remote sensing
Capabilities of These Software Tools
Extract DTMs (Digital Terrain Models) and DEMs (Digital Elevation
Models)
Create orthophotos (geometrically corrected images)
Generate perspective views
Process digital images for data extraction
Serve as interpretation tools for aerial and aerospace imagery
Contoured Orthophoto Basics
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A contoured orthophoto is an orthorectified aerial image with
overlaid contour lines (usually at set intervals, e.g., 5 m), providing
both visual imagery and detailed elevation information.
Data Sources
Generated from a stereo pair of aerial images—in this case, DCS‑420
CIR (color-infrared) images.
Stereo imagery enables accurate extraction of elevation data through
parallax-based photogrammetry.
Software Processing Workflow
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Ground Control Points (GCPs) establish a link between image and
ground coordinates.
Absolute orientation aligns the model to real-world coordinates.
Generation of:
Digital Terrain Model (DTM): represents the bare-earth surface.
Digital Elevation Model (DEM): elevation data grid used for
further processing
Orthorectification of the image using the DTM/DEM to remove
distortions caused by terrain and camera angles
Overlay of contour lines derived from the DTM using the specified
interval (e.g., 5 m)
Role of Contours
9 Provide quantitative 3D terrain context, displaying slope, elevation,
and landform structure.
When combined with imagery, they offer powerful visual and analytical
tools for interpreting terrain features.
Applications & Value
Especially useful to Principal Investigators (PIs) and analysts where
terrain heights and morphology matter(e.g., hydrology, landform
mapping, and planning.)
Support accurate measurements and terrain analysis by combining
geospatial imagery with elevation data.
Software Example-VirtuoZo: a digital photogrammetric tool that
supports the full workflow—stereo image processing, DTM/DEM
production, orthophoto creation, and contour extraction
Computer-Generated Perspective View
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Source Data : Perspective view was generated from a stereopair of
DCS-460 CIR (Color Infrared) images . Images were captured during a
survey of Lyme Bay, on the Dorset coast.
Purpose of the Survey : To document coastal erosion, particularly cliff
falls
Image Processing:25 m contour data was used to generate perspective
views.
Advantages of Perspective Views : Help in photo-interpretation by
showing terrain relationships not visible in standard vertical images .
Offer valuable oblique views without needing an actual oblique
photograph.
Limitations : Lower resolution and clarity compared to directly
captured obliques, even from basic digital cameras.
Technical Details of Image Acquisition : Flight altitude: 5,600 ft
AMSL (Above Mean Sea Level).Lens: 28 mm.Ground Sample
Distance (GSD): 50 cm.
Rulers in Image Software
11 Location & Activation :
Rulers appear along the top (x-axis) and side (y-axis) of an image
window.
Activated by going to Window → Show Rulers.
Units of Measurement :
Ruler units can be changed via File → Preferences.
Available units: pixels, inches, centimeters, points .
Useful for image metrication (measuring features within an image).
Pixel Dimensions Example :
X-axis range: 0–3060.Y-axis range: 0–2036
Confirms image resolution: 3060 × 2036 = 6.14 Megapixels (MPx) for
DCS-460 images.
Scene Radiometric Analysis
12 Scene Radiometric Analysis refers to the process of examining and
interpreting the radiometric (light energy) values in a digital image to
understand the reflectance characteristics of objects or surfaces in the
scene.
Radiometric Data Representation:
Each RGB value on-screen is a Digital Number (DN) ranging from 0
to 255, as it’s based on an 8-bit color system.
To convert DN to spectral reflectance (ρ),
the formula is : Reflectance (%) = DN / 255
For a Red DN value of 128, reflectance =128 / 255 ≈ 0.50
= 50% red reflectance
The RGB bands do not represent true color channels:
R, G, and B values correspond to than in standard visible light imagery.
Applying CFs allows you to convert all RGB DN values across the
image to accurate terrain reflectance values.
Radiometric calibration
13 Radiometric calibration bridges the gap between digital images and real-
world physical reflectance — making remote sensing data scientifically
reliable for environmental monitoring, vegetation analysis, and precision
mapping.”
Purpose : Converts relative RGB digital values (DNs) in an image to
absolute spectral reflectance values . Essential for scientific accuracy,
not just visual interpretation.
Need for Ground Targets : Accurate calibration requires known ground
reflectance targets . These targets must be:
• Painted with matt (non-shiny) paint to avoid reflection artifacts.
• Measured with a spectrophotometer (or spectroradiometer if
including infrared).
• Large enough to be visible in imagery (minimum: 3m × 3m).
• Protected and verified before use (e.g. stored in a damp-proof
environment).
Field Setup : Targets should be placed in a clear, shadow-free area,
such as an airfield.
14 Flown over under the same lighting and scale conditions as the main
survey mission.
Sensor-Specific Calibration:
For cameras like DCS-460 CIR, spectral sensitivity is shifted:
Red channel = 660 nm
Green = 530 nm
Blue = 450 nm
NIR = 780 nm
Filter bandwidths are typically 30–40 nm.
Using the Info Box:
After imagery is loaded into software (e.g. Photoshop), place the cursor
over the ground target.
Read RGB DN values in the Info Box.
Compare these to known reflectance values from the spectrophotometer.
Sun and Shadow Influence in Photo-
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Interpretation
Shadow Orientation Illusion:
Interpreters (PIs) are trained to view vertical aerial photos with
shadows falling towards them, creating the illusion that the sun
is coming from the north—which is physically impossible in
most locations.
This convention helps to correctly perceive depth and terrain
features (e.g., hills vs. craters).
Crater vs. Hill Illusion : The Crater vs. Hill Illusion is a visual
illusion where a crater (a depression) can appear to be a hill (a
raised bump) or vice versa — depending on the direction of the
light source or the way the image is displayed.
The direction of lighting affects our depth perception.
If shadows fall towards the observer, craters appear as depressions.
If the photo is rotated and shadows fall away, the same crater can
appear as a hill—a classic visual illusion.
Artistic and Cartographic Practices:
16 Artists and cartographers use northwest lighting conventions to
simulate realistic terrain and depth.
Shading techniques have been used historically to help viewers
interpret topographic features more naturally.
Moon Illusion Analogy:
Another common illusion: the moon appears larger near the
horizon, even though its angular size is constant.
One theory suggests that humans perceive the sky as a dome—
making the horizon seem farther than the zenith, which affects our
perception of size and distance.
Perception vs. Reality:
These illusions reveal how human perception can be misled by
orientation and light.
Awareness of such illusions is essential for accurate photo-
interpretation.
Image Quality in Aerial Surveys
17 While sensors, cameras, and analysis methods are important, image
quality ultimately depends on environmental conditions during the
aerial survey.
The Survey Flight Manager (SFM) must make critical decisions
about when to fly, especially considering weather and atmospheric
conditions.
Waiting for perfect weather may be impractical in some regions due to
monsoons, snow, or dust storms, so compromises are often
necessary.
However, solar illumination and atmospheric clarity should always
be prioritized because they directly affect image clarity and
usefulness.
☀️Solar Altitude
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Solar altitude is the angle of the sun above the horizon at a specific
location and time.
It changes throughout the day — higher at noon, lower in the
morning and evening.
Importance in Remote Sensing / Photogrammetry:
Affects illumination, shadow length, and image contrast.
Higher solar altitude → short shadows, more even lighting.
Lower solar altitude → long shadows, useful for interpreting
terrain relief.
🔥 Hot-Spots
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A hot-spot occurs when sunlight reflects directly back to the sensor
(camera or satellite), creating a bright glare.
Happens when the sun, object, and sensor are nearly in line.
Common over vegetation, water, or shiny surfaces.
Problems caused by hot-spots:
Washed-out areas in imagery.
Loss of surface texture or detail.
Can interfere with image classification or interpretation.
20 Solar altitude Vs hot-spots
Aspect Solar Altitude Hot-Spots
Sun’s angle above Direct reflection of
What it is
the horizon sunlight to the sensor
Depends on
Yes, varies by time
Changes with time? geometry (sun-
of day and season
object-sensor)
Affects shadows, Causes glare,
Impact on image
contrast, lighting brightness artifacts
Shadow analysis, Detecting reflectance
Useful for
image timing issues
Summary
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Objective analysis using digital image software refers to the automated,
quantitative evaluation of digital images, primarily satellite or aerial
imagery. Unlike subjective visual interpretation, this method uses
algorithms and statistical techniques to extract accurate, repeatable
information.
Modern digital image processing software such as ENVI, ERDAS
Imagine, QGIS, and ArcGIS offers tools for:
Image classification (e.g., land cover mapping)
Feature extraction (e.g., roads, water bodies)
Change detection (monitoring environmental or urban changes over
time)
Image enhancement (to improve visibility of features)
Spectral analysis (to assess vegetation, water quality, etc.)
These tools improve precision, minimize human bias, and allow for
efficient large-scale image analysis, making them essential in fields like
remote sensing, environmental monitoring, and urban planning.
