Sets,

Relations, and
Functions
An exploration of foundational concepts in
mathematics.
Agenda •Definition and representation of sets

•Operations: Union, Intersection, and

Complement

•Understanding and types of relations

•Definition and types of functions

•Function composition and examples

Understanding
Sets
Sets are collections of distinct objects,
represented using curly braces. For
example, the set of natural numbers
less than 5 can be represented as {1,
2, 3, 4}. Understanding operations like
union and intersection is crucial for
working with sets.
What is a Set?
A set is a collection of distinct objects
considered as a whole. For example,
{1, 2, 3} represents a set of numbers,
while {apple, banana, orange}
enumerates different fruits. Sets can
be denoted by listing elements or using
set-builder notation.
Set
Representation
Sets can be represented in two ways:
by explicitly listing their elements, like
A = {1, 2, 3}, or by describing the
properties that define them, such as B
= {x | x is a prime number}. This
representation makes it easier to
understand and work with sets in
mathematics.
Types of Sets
•Empty Set: No elements, denoted by {} or ∅.

•Finite Set: Has a countable number of elements, e.g., {1, 2, 3}.

•Infinite Set: Uncountable elements, e.g., natural numbers.

Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted
A ∪ B, consists of all elements in A, B,
or both. For example, if A = {1, 2} and
B = {2, 3}, then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3}.
Thus, the union combines all distinct
elements from both sets.
Example of Union
The union of two sets combines all elements from both sets. For
example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {3, 4, 5}, their union is A ∪ B =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. Notice that the element '3' is not repeated in the
union.
Intersection of
Sets
The intersection of sets A and B,
denoted A ∩ B, includes elements
common to both sets. For example, if A
= {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 3, 4}, then A ∩
B = {2, 3}. This concept is
fundamental in understanding
relationships between different sets.
Example of
Intersection
The intersection of two sets A and B,
denoted as A ∩ B, is the set of
elements common to both A and B. For
example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2,
3, 4}, then their intersection A ∩ B =
{2, 3}. This illustrates how to identify
shared elements between sets.
Complement of a
Set
The complement of a set A, denoted as
A', includes all elements not in A. For
instance, if U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A =
{2, 3}, then A' = {1, 4, 5}.
Understanding complements is
essential for set operations and
problem-solving.
Example of
Complement
The complement of a set A, denoted A',
consists of all elements in the universal
set U that are not in A. For example, if
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and A = {1, 2},
then A' = {3, 4, 5}. This illustrates how
complements allow us to identify
missing elements from a specified set.
Algebraic Properties of Sets

•Commutative: A ∪ B = B ∪ A

•Associative: (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)

•Distributive: A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Power Set
The power set of a set A consists of all
possible subsets of A, including A itself
and the empty set. For example, if A =
{1, 2}, the power set P(A) = {∅, {1},
{2}, {1, 2}}. This highlights how every
element can either be included or
excluded from a subset.
Example of Power Set
The power set of a set A includes all possible subsets. For example,
if A = {1, 2}, its power set P(A) consists of the subsets: ∅ (the
empty set), {1}, {2}, and {1, 2}. This demonstrates how every
element and their combinations form distinct subsets.
Understanding
Relations
A relation is a set of ordered pairs,
where each pair consists of an input
and an output. For example, the
relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4)}
maps inputs to their corresponding
outputs. Understanding these
connections helps in exploring
functions and their properties.
Types of Relations
•Reflexive: aRa for all a.

•Symmetric: if aRb, then bRa.

•Transitive: if aRb and bRc, then aRc.

 Equivalence
Relations
An equivalence relation on a set is a
relation that satisfies three properties:
reflexivity (every element is related to
itself), symmetry (if one element is
related to another, then the second is
related to the first), and transitivity (if
one element is related to a second,
which is related to a third, then the
first is related to the third). For
example, in the set of integers, the
relation 'having the same remainder
when divided by 5' is an equivalence
relation. A simple exercise is to show
that the relation is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive using
specific integers.
Understanding
Functions
A function uniquely maps each input to
one output. For example, f(x) = x²
assigns each number x to its square.
Thus, f(2) = 4 and f(3) = 9.
Types of
Functions
•One-to-one: Unique outputs for
inputs, e.g., f(x) = x+1

•Onto: Every possible output is

mapped, e.g., f(x) = x^2 for x ≥ 0

•Into: Some outputs aren't produced,

e.g., f(x) = x^3 restricting to positive
x
One-to-One
Functions
A function f is one-to-one if no two
distinct inputs yield the same output;
in mathematical terms, if f(a) = f(b),
then a must equal b. For example, for
f(x) = 2x, each x corresponds to a
unique output. Therefore, this function
is one-to-one.
Onto Functions
A function f is termed onto if for every
element in its codomain there exists at
least one corresponding element in its
domain. For instance, if f(x) = x^2 for
x in {1, 2}, the codomain {1, 4} is fully
covered. Thus, f is onto when its
codomain matches its range.
Example of Onto Function
A function f: {1, 2} → {a, b} is onto if every element in the
codomain is mapped from the domain. For instance, f(1)=a and
f(2)=b covers both 'a' and 'b', hence it's onto. Conversely, f(1)=a
and f(2)=a only covers 'a', thus it is not onto.
Composition of
Functions
The composition of functions combines
two functions, f and g, to form a new
function h, defined as h(x) = f(g(x)).
For example, if f(x) = 2x and g(x) = x
+ 3, then h(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x + 3) =
2(x + 3) = 2x + 6. This operation is
fundamental in understanding the
relationships between functions.
Example of
Composition
Composition of functions involves
applying one function to the result of
another. For example, if f(x) = 2x and
g(x) = x + 1, then (f ∘ g)(x) = f(g(x)) =
f(x + 1) = 2(x + 1). This illustrates how
functions can interact to produce new
outputs.
Homework
Problems
•Problem 1: Find A ∪ B for A = {1,2}
and B = {2,3}

•Problem 2: Prove reflexivity in the

relation R = {(1,1), (2,2)}
•Problem 3: Determine if f(x) = 2x is
onto
Homework
Solutions
• Sets: A U B = {1, 2, 3}

•Union: A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}

•Functions: f(x) = x + 2, f(3) = 5

 •Sets are fundamental building blocks of
mathematics.

Conclusion •Understanding operations on sets

enhances problem-solving skills.

•Relations define connections through

ordered pairs.

•Functions map inputs to unique outputs

and have specific properties.

•Composition of functions reveals deeper

relationships among functions.