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Unit 3:DATABASE CREATION, CONNECTIVITY &

NETWORKING

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Database creation: Types of database parameter files

• Server parameter file (SPFILE): A binary file that contains the

initialization parameters
• Initialization parameter file (pfile): A text file that contains a list of all
initialization parameters.
• The key difference between these two types of files is that with an SPFILE,
you have the option of making any changes you make to the initialization
parameters while an instance is running persist across an instance
shutdown.
• You can’t do this using the initialization parameter file, since any dynamic
changes that are also not recorded in that file will not persist after you
restart your instance.

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pfile

• init.ora to refer to the pfile.

• standard name for the pfile is initdb_name.ora.
• The initialization parameter file includes parameters that
will help tune the instance, that set limits on certain
database resources, and that specify the names and
locations of important files.
• It also contains parameters that affect database
performance, such as those specifying the amount of
memory allocated to Oracle.

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Pfile(contd…)

• You can make an instance-wide change by using the

ALTER SYSTEM keyword and a session wide change by
using the ALTER SESSION keyword.
• The initialization file has the locations of the control files
and the dump directories for error messages.

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SP file(several parameter file)

• When you create a new database, you specify the

initialization parameters for the Oracle instance
in a special configuration file called the server parameter
file (SPFILE).
• In the SPFILE, you specify the memory limits for the
instance, the locations of the control files, whether and
where the archived logs are saved, and other settings that
determine the behaviour of the Oracle database server.
• The ORACLE_HOME directory is the standard location
for the Oracle executables.
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Oracle networking and connectivity

• Oracle Net Services is configured with several important

features to make life easier for DBAs:
• Location transparency: Users are given only the database
name, and the connection is entirely transparent to them.
• Centralized configuration: The LDAP-compliant
directory server supported by Oracle provides a very
efficient centralized repository for meeting all your
networking needs.

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• Scalability: Oracle offers a specialized architecture, called

the shared-server architecture, to enhance scalability.

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How Oracle Networking Works

• Connect to database across the network by :

• If connection is between local machine and oracle
database, need a method of making a connection between
your desktop and the Oracle database (which involves the
use of specialized software like SQL* plus interface).
• To make easier, Oracle provides Oracle Net Services,
which is a suite of components that provide connectivity
solutions in distributed, heterogeneous computing
environments.

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• Oracle Net Services consists :

• Oracle Net,
• Oracle Net Listener,
• Oracle Connection Manager,
• Oracle Net Configuration Assistant, and Oracle Net
Manager.
• The Oracle Net Services software is installed
automatically as part of the Oracle Database Server or the
Oracle Client software installation.

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 Oracle Net Listener (commonly referred to as just the

listener), whose main function is to listen for requests from
client services to log into the Oracle database.
 The listener, after ensuring that the client service has the
 matching information for the database (protocol, port, and
instance name) passes the client request on to the database.
 The database will allow the client to log in, provided the
username and password are authenticated. Once the listener
hands off the user request to the database, the client and the
database will be in direct contact, without any help from the
listener service.
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• Oracle Net consists mainly of two components:

• Oracle Network Foundation Layer: Responsible for
establishing and maintaining the connection
between the client application and the server, as well as
exchanging messages between them.
• Oracle Protocol Support: Responsible for mapping
Transparent Network Substrate (TNS)
functionality to industry-standard protocols used in
connections

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Important Oracle Database 10g Initialization
Parameters
• Audit-Related Parameters :
• If you want auditing turned on, you can set the AUDIT_TRAIL parameter
to any of the following values:
• os: Oracle writes the audit records to an operating system audit trail, which
is an operating system file, including audit records from the OS, audit
records for the SYS user, and those database actions that are always
automatically audited.
• db: Oracle records the same type of auditing as with the os setting, but it
directs all audit records to the database audit trail, which is the AUD$ table
owned by SYS.
• db,extended: This is similar to the db setting, but also provides extended
audit information like the SQLBIND and SQLTEXT columns of the
SYS.AUD$ table.
• none: This value disables auditing.
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• In addition, you have two XML-related AUDIT_TRAIL

values (new in Oracle Database 10.2):
• XML: This value for audit trail enables database auditing
and writes audit details to OS files in XML format.
• XML,EXTENDED: This value prints all database audit
records plus the SQLTEXT and SQLBIND values to OS
files in the XML format.

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• The parameter is set as follows:

• AUDIT_TRAIL = db
• Default value: none
• Parameter type: Static

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AUDIT_FILE_DEST

• The AUDIT_FILE_DEST parameter specifies the

directory in which the database will write the audit
records, when you choose the operating system as the
destination with the AUDIT_TRAIL parameter by
specifying AUDIT_TRAIL=os.
• Default value: $ORACLE_HOME/rdbms/audit
• Parameter type: Dynamic.

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AUDIT_SYS_OPERATIONS

• This parameter, if set to a value of true, will audit all

actions of the SYS user and any other user with
a SYSDBA or SYSOPER role and will write the details to
the operating system audit trail specified by the
AUDIT_TRAIL parameter.
• By writing the audit information to a secure operating
system location, you remove any possibility of the SYS
user tampering with an audit trail that is located within
the database. The possible values are true and false.

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• Default value: false

• Parameter type: Static

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Initialization parameters with respect to files

• IFILE:use the IFILE parameter to embed another

initialization file in it.
• ifile=config.ora,and in config we have to
• Default value: No default value
• Parameter type: Static

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• CONTROL_FILES:When you use the CREATE

DATABASE statement, Oracle creates the control files
listed in the CONTROL_FILES parameter.
• You must have a minimum of one control file and may
have up to eight control files per database.
• Default value: Depends on the operating system
• Parameter type: Static

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• CONTROL_FILE_RECORD_KEEP_TIME:The
CONTROL_FILE_RECORD_KEEP_TIME parameter
specifies how many days Oracle will retain records
in the control file before overwriting them.
• For example,if you maintain a flash recovery area that
holds two full weekly backups and daily incremental
backups, set CONTROL_FILE_RECORD_KEEP_TIME to
at least 21 days.
• Default: Seven days
• Parameter type: Modifiable dynamically.
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• DB_FILES:The DB_FILES parameter simply specifies the

maximum number of database files that can be
opened for a database.
• Default value: 200
• Parameter type: Static
• CORE_DUMP_DEST:The CORE_DUMP_DEST
parameter specifies the directory location where you want
the core (error) messages dumped to.
• Default value: Depends on the operating system; you can
use any valid directory.
• Parameter type: Dynamic.
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• USER_DUMP_DEST:The USER_DUMP_DEST
parameter specifies the directory where you want Oracle
to save error messages from various processes, such as
PMON and the database writer.
• Default value: Depends on the operating system; you can
use any valid directory.
• Parameter type: Dynamic.

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• BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST
• The BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST parameter specifies
the Oracle alert log location and the locations of
some other trace files for the instance.
• Default value: Depends on the operating system; you can
use any valid directory.
• Parameter type: Dynamic.

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• use the UTL_FILE_DIRECTORY parameter to specify

the directory (or directories) Oracle will use to process
I/O when you use the Oracle UTL_FILE package to read
from or write to the operating system files.
• Default value: none; you can’t use the UTL_FILE
package to do any I/O with this setting.
• Parameter type: Static

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Oracle provides a number of GUI-based utilities

• the Oracle Connection Manager,

• the Oracle Net Manager,
• and Oracle Net Configuration Assistant.

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Database Name and Other General Parameters

• The most important of the general parameters is the

parameter that sets the name of the database.
• DB_NAME and DB_UNIQUE_NAME:
• The DB_NAME parameter sets the name of the database.
• DB_NAME value can be up to eight characters.
• Default value: false
• Parameter type: Static
• The DB_UNIQUE_NAME parameter lets you specify a
globally unique name for the database.

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DB_DOMAIN

• The DB_DOMAIN parameter specifies a fully qualified

name (in Internet dot notation) for the database,
and this is typically the same as the name of the
organization that owns the database.
• The DB_DOMAIN parameter specifies the logical
location of the database within the network structure.
• Default value: false
• Parameter type: Static

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• INSTANCE_NAME:The INSTANCE_NAME parameter

will have the same value as the DB_NAME parameter in a
single instance environment.
• Default value: The instance SID
• Parameter type: Static.
• SERVICE_NAME:The SERVICE_NAME parameter
provides a name for the database service, and it can be
anything you want it to be. Usually, it is a combination of
the database name and your database domain.
• Default value: DB_NAME.DB_DOMAIN
• Parameter type: Dynamic.
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• COMPATIBLE:The COMPATIBLE parameter allows you

to use the latest Oracle database release, while making sure
that the database is compatible with an earlier release.
• Default value: 10.2.0
• Parameter type: Static.
• INSTANCE_TYPE:The INSTANCE_TYPE parameter
specifies whether your instance is a database instance or an
Automatic Storage Management instance.
• Default value: RDBMS
• Parameter type: Static

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• DISPATCHERS:The DISPATCHERS parameter

configures the dispatcher process if you choose to run
your database in the shared server mode.
• Default value: none
• Parameter type: Dynamic.
• NLS_DATE_FORMAT:The NLS_DATE_FORMAT
parameter specifies the default date format Oracle will
use. For example, if the NLS_TERRITORY format is
America,the NLS_DATE_FORMAT parameter is
automatically set to the DD-MON-YY format.
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• Default value: Depends on the NLS_TERRITORY

variable and the operating system
• Parameter type: Dynamic.

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Oracle Net Services is configured with several
important features to make life easier for DBAs:

• Location transparency: Clients need not know the network location or any
other privileged information about database services, because you can
maintain all the information required to make database connections in a
centralized repository.
• Centralized configuration: Network, authentication, and other security
information is saved in a central place where numerous users then access
this information.
• Scalability: Oracle offers a specialized architecture, called the shared-
server architecture, to enhance scalability. This architecture enables several
users to share the same connection process through the use of a dispatcher
process.

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Contd.....

• Maintenance is easy due to centralized configuration.

• Oracle offers the Connection Manager feature, which
provides connection multiplexing whereby multiple
connections are taken care of simultaneously.
• The LDAP-compliant directory server supported
by Oracle provides a very efficient centralized repository
for meeting all your networking needs.

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Oracle net layers

• Oracle Net is a software component that initiates, establishes, and

maintains connections between clients and servers.
• Oracle Net consists mainly of two components:
• Oracle Network Foundation Layer: Responsible for establishing and
maintaining the connection between the client application and the server,
as well as exchanging messages between them
• Oracle Protocol Support: Responsible for mapping Transparent Network
Substrate (TNS) functionality to industry-standard protocols used in
connections

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important terms that are crucial in Oracle networking

• Database Instance Names : The database
instance name is specified in the initialization file (init.ora) as the INSTANCE_NAME
parameter.
• Normally, each database can have only one instance associated with it. In an Oracle
Real Application Clusters (RAC) configuration, however, a single database could
be associated with multiple instances.
• Global Database Names : The global database name uniquely identifies an Oracle
database and is of the format database_name.database_domain; for example,
sales.us.acme.com. In this global database name, “sales” is the database name and
“us.acme.com” is the database domain.
• Since no two databases in the same domain could have the same database name,
every global database name is unique.

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• Database Service Names : To a client, the database

logically appears as simply a service. There is a many-to-
many relationship between services and databases, since a
database can be represented by one or more services, each
dedicated to a different set of clients, and a service can
cover more than one database instance.
• For example, you can take the same database and create
two service names like the following:
• sales.us.acme.com
• finance.us.acme.com
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Connect descriptors and connect identifiers.

• To connect to any database service in the world from your
desktop, you need to provide two bits of information:
• Name of the database service
• Location of the address
• A connect descriptor address portion contains three components:
the communications protocol used for the
connection, the host name, and the port number.
• (DESCRIPTION
• (ADDRESS=(PROTOCOL=tcp) (HOST=sales-server)
(PORT=1521))
• (CONNECT_DATA=
• (SERVICE_NAME=sales.us.acme.com)))
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Connect identifiers.

• A connect identifier is closely related to the connect

descriptor. You can use the connect descriptor
as your connect identifier, or you can simply map a
database service name to a connect descriptor.
• sales=(DESCRIPTION(ADDRESS=(PROTOCOL=tcp)
(HOST=sales-server) (PORT=1521))
(CONNECT_DATA=(SERVICE_NAME=sales.us.acme.c
om))).

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Connect strings
You connect to a database by providing a connect string. A connect string
contains a username/password combination and a connect identifier. One of
the most common connect identifiers is a net service name, which is a simple
name for a database service.
• The following example shows a connect string that uses a complete connect
descriptor as the
• connect identifier:
• CONNECT scott/tiger@(DESCRIPTION=
• (ADDRESS=(PROTOCOL=tcp)
• (HOST=sales_server1)
• (PORT=1521))
• (CONNECT_DATA=(SERVICE_NAME=sales.us.acme.com)))
• Here’s a much easier way to connect to the same database, using the connect
identifier sales:CONNECT scott/tiger@sales
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Steps for Establishing Oracle Connectivity

1. Make sure the database server is installed and the
Oracle instance is running.
2. Make sure that your Oracle Client software is installed
on the client machine.
3. Check that the database server and client are running
on the same network.
4. The TCP/IP protocol must be installed on both the
server and the client.
5. Ensure that the Oracle listener service is running on the
server and is listening at the appropriate port for
incoming requests for connections.
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6. Configure the client for connecting to the database.

7. Connect to the database with SQL*Plus or a third-
party tool.

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Four options for installing oracle client software.

• Administrator: Lets applications connect to local or

remote Oracle databases and administer them as well
• Runtime: Lets you connect to local or remote Oracle
databases
• Custom: Lets you select individual components from the
Administrator and Runtime installation components.
• Instant Client: Installs only the shared libraries required
by Oracle Call Interface (OCI),Oracle C++ Call Interface
(OCCI), and Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) OCI
applications
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Using the TWO_TASK Environment Variable

• The TWO_TASK environment variable specifies the connect string for connecting to a remote
machine. SQL*Net will check the value of the TWO_TASK environment variable and
automatically add it to your connect string, as shown in the following example:
• $ export TWO_TASK=mydb
• Once you set the TWO_TASK environment variable, you can connect to the mydb database in
the following way:
• $ sqlplus scott/tiger
• Note that you didn’t have to use the specification sqlplus scott/tiger@mydb, since you’re
using the TWO_TASK variable.
• On a Windows server, the following is the equivalent for setting the TWO_TASK environment
• variable:
• $ SET LOCAL=<mydb>
• $ sqlplus scott/tiger

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access the mapping
Information stored in various locations can be accessed
with one of the following four naming methods:

• Local naming: Uses a file called tnsnames.ora stored on

each client to connect to the database server.
• Easy connect naming: Enables connections without any
service name configuration.
• External naming: Uses a third-party naming service to
resolve service names.
• Directory naming: Uses a centralized LDAP-compliant
directory server to resolve service names.

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Local naming

• Local naming is the simplest and easiest way to establish

Oracle connectivity.
• Using this method, you store service names and their
connect descriptors in a localized configuration file
named tnsnames.ora.
• By default, this file is always stored in the
$ORACLE_HOME/network/admin directory.

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Easy connect

• The only condition for using the easy connect naming

method is that you must have support for the TCP/IP
protocol on both the client and the server.
• Here’s the general syntax of this new connecting method:
• $ CONNECT
username/password@[//]host[:port][/service_name]

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External naming method

• The external naming method uses external naming

services such as the Network Information Service
(NIS), originally developed by Sun Microsystems, to
resolve net service names.
• NIS systems keep a central database of host names and
uses a flat namespace based on a master server.

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Directory naming method

• The directory naming method stores database connection

information in a Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
(LDAP)–compliant directory server.
• The connect identifiers are stored under an Oracle context
that contains entries for use with OID.
• In addition to helping clients connect to central networks
and databases, directories such as OID are valuable for
providing enterprise-wide security.

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steps you need to perform to use the external naming
method for name resolution:

1. Have your system administrator configure NIS if it isn’t already in

place.
2. Create a tnsnames.ora file as you would in the local naming method.
3. Convert the tnsnames.ora file to a tnsnames map, which you’ll need for
the NIS server later on.
# tns2nis tnsnames.ora

4. Copy the tnsnames map file to the server on which the NIS is running.
5. Install the tnsnames map file on the NIS server using the makedbm NIS
program, as shown here:
• # makedbm tnsnames /var/yp/'domainname'/tnsnames

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Contd....

6. Test the NIS installation of the tnsnames map by using the following
command:
# ypmatch net_service_name tnsnames
You should get a confirmation back in the following form:
description=(address=(protocol=tcp)
(host=host_name)(port=port_number)))
(connect_data=(service_name=service_name)))
7. Edit the sqlnet.ora file as follows:
NAMES_DIRECTORY_PATH=(nis, hostname, tnsnames)
The nis method should be listed first inside the brackets so that Oracle Net
will attempt to resolve the service name using NIS first. Apart from that,
the order of the items in the brackets doesn’t matter.

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Web application connects to Oracle by following certain

steps:
• To make an Internet connection to an Oracle database, the
web browser on the client communicates with the web
server and makes the connection request using the HTTP
protocol.
• The web server passes the request along to an application,
which processes it and communicates with the Oracle
database server using Oracle Net (which is configured on
both the database server and the client).
• Then next steps are carried out by net manager ,
configuration assistant.
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System Administrator’s Post-Installation Tasks

• Update the database shutdown and startup scripts.

• Create additional operating system accounts.

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• When installed, these scripts will start up and shut down the
Oracle database whenever the server is
booted up or shut down, ensuring that the database is always
closed cleanly and that you don’t have to manually bring up
the database after system crashes.
• These sample scripts are located in
$ORACLE_HOME/bin directory. To start a database
automatically upon system reboot, use the dbstart.sh script.
• To stop a database upon system shutdown, use the
dbshut.sh script.

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Creating Additional Operating System Accounts

• After the installation is complete, the system

administrator must create any other necessary user
accounts.
• All the DBA users must be part of the OSDBA group.

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Oracle Owner’s Post-Installation Tasks

• Setting the Environment

• Miscellaneous Tasks
• Setting Initialization Parameters
• Configuring Oracle Net Services

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Setting the Environment

• Before you can create a database on your system, you

need to set some environment variables.
• The most important of these are the ORACLE_HOME,
ORACLE_SID, TNS_ADMIN, CLASS_PATH,
TWO_TASK, and LD_LIBRARY_PATH variables.

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Miscellaneous Tasks

• need to perform some additional tasks as the oracle user.

Make sure you check the patch directory on your CD and
apply any available patches.
• You also need to ensure that your databases are a part of
the /etc/oratab file, so they can be automatically started
up and shut down.

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Setting Initialization Parameters

• After database is created, make sure you create an

SPFILE, which is a more sophisticated way of managing
yourinitialization parameters than the traditional init.ora
file.

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Configuring Oracle Net Services

• To enable connectivity to the database, you must

configure Oracle Net Services.
• The configuration tasks include starting the listener
process or, if the listener is already running on the server,
making sure your databases are registered with it.
• All databases automatically register with the listener
when they are created.

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Removing Oracle

• Oracle automatically removes all files, including files that

belong to configuration assistants and patch sets, during
the uninstallation process.
• The installer automatically cleans up all the Windows
registry entries.

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Instant client
• Fortunately, you may not always need to install the
complete Oracle Client software for connecting to
an Oracle database.
• Oracle’s new Instant Client software allows you to run your
applications without installing the standard Oracle Client or
having an ORACLE_HOME.
• You don’t need to install the Oracle Client software on
every machine that needs access to the Oracle database. All
existing OCI,ODBC, and JDBC applications will work with
the Instant Client. If you wish, you can even use SQL*Plus
with the Instant Client.

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Instant client installation with advantages.

• Download the Instant Client software from the OTN web

site.packages might
include:basic,SQL*plus,JDBC,ODBC supplements,SDK.
• Unzip the selected packages into a single directory, and
name it something like “instant client”.
• In UNIX and Linux systems, set the environment variable
LD_LIBRARY_PATH to instant client.
• Test your connection to the Oracle server.

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Advantages.

• It is free.
• It takes less disk space.
• The installation is faster (five minutes or so).
• No CD is required.
• It has all the features of the regular Oracle Client,
including SQL*Plus if necessary.

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Listener management

1.Multiple listeners:
• You can have more than one listener service running on
the same server, but you’ll usually do this when you’re
using Oracle Real Application Clusters (RAC).
• If you do use multiple listener services,you can configure
the CONNECT_TIME_FAILOVER parameter, which
determines how long a client connection
waits for a connection through one listener before
attempting a connection through another.

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2.Setting Size

• To set the QUEUESIZE parameter:

• LISTENER=(DESCRIPTION=(ADDRESS=(PROTOCO
L=tcp)(HOST=sales server)(PORT=1521)
(QUEUESIZE=10))).
3.Setting the password for the Listener
• LSNRCTL> set password
• Password:
• The command completed successfully

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Following the Optimal Flexible Architecture

• Before you start any installation of the Oracle software

itself, it is absolutely necessary for you to be familiar with
the OFA recommendations regarding proper disk layout.
The OFA is a set of recommendations from Oracle
Corporation aimed at simplifying management of
complex software and databases often running under
multiple versions of software.
 The OFA essentially imposes a standardized way of
naming the different physical components of Oracle and
places them on the file system according to a logical plan.
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Following the Optimal Flexible
Architecture(Contd...)

• The usefulness of the OFA guidelines becomes

particularly clear when you are trying to manage multiple
databases on the same server.
• You can simplify administration by using the structured
OMF system for maintaining your files.
 Creating new databases won’t pose any problems,
because each database is separated into its own
directories, simplifying user administration and the
creation of new databases.

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Terms in OFA

• Mount points: These are directories in the UNIX file

system that are used to access mounted file
systems.
• Product files: These are the many sets of configuration
and binary executable files that come with the Oracle
software.
• Versions: These can refer to entirely different releases or
to point upgrades (patch upgrades).

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Terms in OFA(Contd....)

• For example, 9.2.0.1.0 and 10.1.0.2.0 are different

versions of the server software.
• Oracle data files: These are the UNIX files that hold
Oracle table and index data.
• Oracle administrative files: These include the database
log files, error logs, and so forth.
• Tablespaces: These refer to the logical allocation of
space within Oracle

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Administrative Files

• adhoc :Contains ad hoc SQL files

• arch :Contains archived redo log files
• Adump: Contains any audit files
• bdump :Contains background process trace files
• create Contains SQL scripts that you can use for creating
your databases
• cdump :Contains core dump files
• Dpdump: Contains the Data Pump Export files
• pfile :Contains instance parameter files (such as init.ora)
• Udump: Contains SQL trace files for user processes
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How OID Makes Database Connections

1.The person wanting to connect types his or her usual username/password
combination into the client computer, along with a connect identifier.
2. The sqlnet.ora file on the client specifies that it’s using OID to resolve names,
so the Net Services client hands its request to the OID listener/dispatcher process.
3. The OID listener/dispatcher relays the LDAP request to the Oracle
directory server.
4. The directory server connects to the OID database and resolves the connect
identifier to the underlying connect descriptor, which contains the network, server,
and protocol information.It sends this detailed connect descriptor information to the
Net Services client.
5. The client sends the connect descriptor it receives to the Oracle Net listener
(or to the dispatcher,if shared servers are being used).
6. The listener service receives the connection request and, after verifying it,
sends it to the database.

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