Methods of Data
Collection
If we wanted to measure aggressive behavior
in children:
we could collect by observing children
by using equipment to measure the force with
which they hit an object
by examining juvenile crime records
by surveying parents and teachers
by interviewing parents and teachers
or by administering an aggression scale to
children.
There are several distinctly different methods
that can be used to collect data.
Each method has its own advantages and
disadvantages
There are two methods of collecting data. They
are,
1.Quantitative Data Collection
2.Qualitative Data Collection
Methods of Data
Collection
Quantitative Qualitative
structured • informal
questionnaire, interview case
semi-structured study
questionnaire • in-depth
interview
• focus group
discussion,
• observation
• projective tests
Quantitative Data Collection Methods
Questionnaire
A questionnaire is a research instrument
consisting of a series of questions for the
purpose of gathering information from
respondents.
Questionnaires can be thought of as a kind of
written interview.
They can be carried out face to face, by
telephone, computer or post.
Questionnaires provide a relatively inexpensive,
quick and efficient way of obtaining large
amounts of information from a large sample of
people.
Data can be collected relatively quick because
the researcher would not need to be present
when the questionnaires were completed.
This is useful for large populations when
interviews would be impractical.
However, a problem with questionnaires is that
respondents may lie due to social desirability.
Most people want to present a positive image of
themselves and so may lie or bend the truth to look
good.
Questionnaires can be an effective means of
measuring the behavior, attitudes, preferences,
opinions and, intentions of relatively large numbers
of subjects more easier and quicker than other
methods.
Web-based questionnaire
Web-based questionnaires, also commonly
referred to as online survey or internet survey .
It is defined as a data collection method where
surveys or questionnaires are sent over the
internet to a sample of respondents and they can
respond to this survey over the world wide web.
Respondents can be sent web surveys via various
mediums such as email, embedded over the
website, social media, etc.
The primary reason for the growth seen in
the implementation of web survey is that they
are extremely low cost and conducting a web
survey is convenient due to the sheer
magnitude of reach.
Over the past decade, researchers have
started preferring conducting surveys using
online sources as they can send out surveys
from the desktops or laptops and their target
audience can respond to these surveys
whenever possible.
Internet-based surveys are supposed to be
less costly than performing face-to-face
interviews or delivering postal questionnaires
to participants, and since the data is
automatically stored, errors due to the
manual entry of the data in a database are
minimised.
Nevertheless, the advantages of the online
methods depend on factors such as the age of
the target population and their familiarity
with the Internet
Some disadvantages of this method include the
exclusion of people who do not have a computer
or are unable to access a computer.
Also the validity of such surveys are in question
as people might be in a hurry to complete it and
so might not give accurate responses.
Implementation of this mode of data collection
carries other challenges and may demand more
technical expertise to be designed and delivered.
Closed-ended or open-ended.
A questionnaire is a research device or
instrument that is made up of a series of
questions which are closed-ended or open-ended.
The goal is to collect relevant data from
respondents which can then be used for a variety
of purposes.
When you give the respondent the ability to give
a longer answer, it can yield more insights
because they can elaborate on their thoughts.
Examples of closed-ended questions are:
Are you feeling better today?
"Do you have a family history of depression?"
Examples of open-ended questions are:
How do you see your future?
Tell about your relationship with your spouse
Structured questionnaire
Structured questionnaire is a document that
consists of a set of standardized questions with
a fixed scheme, which specifies the exact
wording and order of the questions, for
gathering information from respondents.
The use of structured questionnaire has a close
relationship with quantitative analysis.
Structured Questionnaire that contains only
closed-ended questions.
Semi-structured questionnaire
A semi-structured questionnaire (often used in
semi-structures interviews) is a type of
interview in which the interviewer asks only a
few predefined questions while the rest of the
questions are not planned in advance.
Semi-structured: Contains both open-ended
and closed ended questions.
Unstructured: Contains open-ended questions
exclusively or majority.
Standardization
Standardization is a procedure used in
science to increase the validity and reliability
of research.
It is a statistical technique used for selecting
and rejecting the items in a scale on the basis
of the obtained values.
the process of establishing norms for a test
Standardization……..contd.
The use of uniform procedures in test administration to
ensure that all participants take the same test under the
same conditions and are scored by the same criteria,
which in turn ensures that results can be compared to
each other.
In essence, this type of standardization tries to reduce
the influence of any extraneous variable on the test or
experimental performance of participants.
If procedures are not standardized, this will affect
reliability and internal validity and result in biased
findings.
STANDARDIZATION is the process of trying
out the test on a group of people to see the
scores which are typically obtained.
In this way, any test taker can make sense of
his or her score by comparing it to typical
scores.
Tests must be standardized, reliable (give
consistent results), and valid (reproducible)
before they can be considered useful
psychological tools.
Interview method
The interview is an important data gathering
technique involving verbal communication
between the researcher and the subject.
Structured Interview
A structured interview is a quantitative
research method where the interviewer use a
set of prepared closed-ended questions in the
form of an interview schedule, which he/she
reads out exactly as worded.
Interviews schedules have a standardized
format which means the same questions are
asked to each interviewee in the same order.
The interviewer will not deviate from the
interview schedule (except to clarify the
meaning of the question) or probe beyond the
answers received.
A structured interview is also known as a
formal interview (like a job interview).
Strengths
1. Structured interviews are easy to replicate as a
fixed set of closed questions are used, which are
easy to quantify – this means it is easy to test for
reliability.
2. Structured interviews are fairly quick to conduct
which means that many interviews can take place
within a short amount of time.
This means a large sample can be obtained resulting
in the findings being representative and having the
ability to be generalized to a large population.
Limitations
1. Structure interviews are not flexible. This
means new questions cannot be asked
impromptu (i.e. during the interview) as an
interview schedule must be followed.
2. The answers from structured interviews
lack detail as only closed questions are asked
which generates quantitative data. This
means a researcher won't know why a person
behaves in a certain way.
Unstructured Interview
Unstructured interviews do not use any set
questions, instead, the interviewer asks open-
ended questions based on a specific research
topic, and will try to let the interview flow
like a natural conversation.
The interviewer modifies his or her questions
to suit the candidate's specific experiences.
Also called as in-depth interviews,
unstructured interviews are usually described
as conversations held with a purpose in mind
– to gather data about the research study.
The main objective of most researchers using
unstructured interviews is to build a bond
with the respondents due to which there are
high chances that the respondents will be
more truthful with their answers.
There are no guidelines for the researchers
to follow and so, they can approach the
participants in any ethical manner to gain as
much information as they possibly can for
their research topic.
Since there are no guidelines for these interviews, a researcher is
expected to keep their approach in check so that the respondents do
not away from the main research motive. For a researcher to obtain the
desired outcome, he/she must keep the following factors in mind:
Intent of the interview.
The interview should primarily take into consideration the
participant’s interest and skills.
All the conversations should be conducted within permissible limits
of research and the researcher should try and stick by these limits.
The skills and knowledge of the researcher should match the purpose
of the interview.
Advantages of Unstructured Interviews:
Due to the informal nature of unstructured interviews – it
becomes extremely easy for researchers to try and
develop a friendly rapport with the participants. This
leads to gaining insights in extreme detail without much
conscious effort.
The participants can clarify all their doubts about the
questions and the researcher can take each opportunity
to explain his/her intention for better answers.
There are no questions which the researcher has to abide
by and this usually increases the flexibility of the entire
research process.
Disadvantages of Unstructured Interviews:
As there is no structure to the interview
process, researchers take time to execute
these interviews.
The absence of a standardized set of
questions and guidelines indicates that the
reliability of unstructured interviews is
questionable.
In many cases, the ethics involved in these
interviews are considered borderline
Focus group discussion
Focus group interview is a qualitative
approach where a group of respondents are
interviewed together, used to gain an in‐
depth understanding of social issues.
The method aims to obtain data from a
purposely selected group of individuals rather
than from a statistically representative
sample of a broader population.
The role of the interview moderator is to make sure the
group interact with each other and do not drift off-topic.
Ideally, the moderator will be similar to the participants
in terms of appearance, have adequate knowledge of
the topic being discussed, and exercise mild
unobtrusive control over dominant talkers and shy
participants.
A researcher must be highly skilled to conduct a focus
group interview. For example, certain skills may be
needed by the moderator including the ability to
establish rapport and knowing when to probe.
Focus Group Guide
Objectives
Introduction
Ground rules
Please talk one at a time and speak up as much as much as possible.
This will make it easier for us to hear each other.
Please respect one another’s opinions. There will be a range of opinions
and experiences on any of the topics, and we do not expect everyone to
agree with another. We do, however, ask that everybody show respect
when others are talking.
Because we have only limited time, we may have to shorten the
discussion and move on to another question.
Feel free to respond to each other about these topics, not just answer my
questions. This will help us have a good discussion about each topic.
Are there any other agreements we should include to help guide our
discussion today?
Strengths
1. Group interviews generate qualitative narrative
data through the use of open questions. This allows
the respondents to talk in some depth, choosing
their own words. This helps the researcher develop a
real sense of a person’s understanding of a situation.
Qualitative data also includes observational data,
such as body language and facial expressions.
2. They also have increased validity because some
participants may feel more comfortable being with
others as they are used to talking in groups in real
life (i.e. it's more natural).
Limitations
1. The researcher must ensure that they keep all the
interviewees' details confidential and respect their privacy.
This is difficult when using a group interview. For example,
the researcher cannot guarantee that the other people in
the group will keep information private.
2. Group interviews are less reliable as they use open
questions and may deviate from the interview schedule
making them difficult to repeat.
2. Group interviews may sometimes lack validity as
participants may lie to impress the other group members.
They may conform to peer pressure and give false answers.
Icebreaker *5 Min.*
Introductory Questions
Main Questions
Wrap Up
Summary and Conclusions
Summarise main points
Any other thoughts before we finish up
Check if any questions from observers
THANK PARTICIPANTS AND CLOSE
MODERATOR DOs AND DON’Ts
Do …
Make everyone feel welcome
Speak in a loud, clear voice
Be flexible
Include everyone in the discussion
Leave enough time for people to answer questions
Vary your style of asking questions to get a variety
of answers
Probe for clarity
Allow diverse opinions to emerge
Don’t …
Talk too much
Let one person dominant the discussion
Fail to stay neutral on the issue
Ask more than one question at a time
Ask “yes” or “no” questions (instead ask
open-ended questions)
Go over the allotted time
Forget to thank people for participating
Focus groups usually do not last more than one and one ‐half hours in duration. The focus
encounter should begin by:
1. Welcoming the participants to the session.
2. Introducing and explaining the role of each facilitator.
3. Discussing the purpose of the focus group.
4. Articulating a brief overview of the process, duration, and explanation of
the ground rules.
5. Opening with a compelling introductory question to lead off the
discussion.
6. Ending with a summary question or statement to close the discussion.
7. Debriefing participants.
8. Thanking participants for their participation.
Case Study
Case studies are in-depth investigations of a
single person, group, event or community.
Typically, data are gathered from a variety of
sources and by using several different
methods (e.g. observations & interviews).
A case study is an in-depth study of one
person, group, or event. In a case study,
nearly every aspect of the subject's life and
history is analyzed to seek patterns and
causes of behavior.
The hope is that learning gained from
studying one case can be generalized to many
others.
Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly
subjective and it is sometimes difficult to
generalize results to a larger population.
Benefits and Limitations
A case study can have both strengths and weaknesses.
Researchers must consider these pros and cons before
deciding if this type of study is appropriate for their needs.
One of the greatest advantages of a case study is that it
allows researchers to investigate things that are often
difficult to impossible to replicate in a lab. Some other
benefits of a case study:
Allows researchers to collect a great deal of information
Give researchers the chance to collect information on rare or
unusual cases
Allows researchers to develop hypotheses that can be
explored in experimental research
On the negative side, a case study:
Cannot necessarily be generalized to the larger
population
Cannot demonstrate cause and effect
May not be scientifically rigorous
Can lead to bias
Researchers may choose to perform a case study if
they are interested in exploring a unique or recently
discovered phenomenon. The insights gained from
such research can then help the researchers develop
additional ideas and study questions that might then
be explored in future studies.
