Forensic ballistics &

explosives
Fire triangle
 There are 3 factors must be
present in order to start the
chain reaction of the fire
 Oxygen
 Fuel
 Energy(heat or electric)
 In explosive high energy is
released and gases that
increase pressure leading to
explosion.
 explosives
 Explosives, highly exothermic chemical reactions that produce expanding gases were
 first made by Asian alchemists more than one thousand years ago when they discovered
 mixtures of saltpeter (KNO3) and sulfur could be detonated. Explosives are classified as:
 1. Primary (Initiators): Do not burn but detonate if ignited (mercury fulminate).
 2. Low (Propellants): Burn at steady speed and detonated only under extreme
 conditions (gunpowder).
 3. High: Release large amounts of energy when detonated (nitroglycerine) and other nitro
compounds .
 Due to the inner carbon fuel and presence of carbon besides oxygen C=O
mercury fulminate
 Mercury(II) fulminate, or Hg(CNO)2, is a primary explosive. It is highly sensitive to friction,
heat and shock and is mainly used as a trigger for other explosives in percussion
caps and blasting caps. Mercury(II) cyanate, though its empirical formula is identical, has a
different atomic arrangement; the cyanate and fulminate anions are isomers.
 First used as a priming composition in small copper caps beginning in the 1820s, mercury
fulminate quickly replaced flints as a means to ignite black powder charges in muzzle-
loading firearms. Later, during the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, mercury
fulminate or potassium chlorate became widely used in primers for self-contained rifle and
pistol ammunition. Mercury fulminate has the distinct advantage over potassium chlorate of
being non-corrosive, but it is known to weaken with time, by decomposing into its constituent
elements. The reduced mercury which results forms amalgams with cartridge brass, weakening
it, as well. Today, mercury fulminate has been replaced in primers by more efficient chemical
substances. These are non-corrosive, less toxic and more stable over time; they include lead
azide, lead styphnate and tetrazene derivatives. In addition, none of these compounds
require mercury for manufacture, supplies of which can be unreliable in wartime.
synthesis
 Mercury(II) fulminate is prepared by dissolving mercury in nitric acid and
adding ethanol to the solution. It was first prepared by Edward Charles
Howard in 1800. The crystal structure of this compound was only determined
in 2007.
 Silver fulminate can be prepared in a similar way, but this salt is even more
unstable than mercury fulminate; it can even explode under water and is
impossible to accumulate in large amounts because it detonates under its

Decomposition
own weight.

The thermal decomposition of mercury(II) fulminate can begin at temperatures as low as

100 °C, though it proceeds at a much higher rate with increasing temperature
A possible reaction for the decomposition of mercury(II) fulminate yields carbon
dioxide gas,
nitrogen gas, and a combination of relatively stable mercury salts.
4 Hg(CNO)2 → 2 CO2 + N2 + HgO + 3 Hg(OCN)CN
Hg(CNO)2 → 2 CO + N2 + Hg
Hg(CNO)2 → :Hg(OCN)2 (cyanate or / and isocyanate)
2 Hg(CNO)2 → 2 CO2 + N2 + Hg + Hg(CN)2
 KNO3 potassium nitrate
Is an oxidizing agent in gun powders and explosives

Production
Potassium nitrate can be made by combining ammonium nitrate and potassium hydroxide.
NH4NO3 (aq) + KOH (aq) → NH3 (g) + KNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
An alternative way of producing potassium nitrate without a by-product of ammonia is to combine
ammonium nitrate, found in instant ice packs,
and potassium chloride, easily obtained as a sodium-free salt substitute.
NH4NO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → NH4Cl (aq) + KNO3 (aq)
Potassium nitrate can also be produced by neutralizing nitric acid with potassium hydroxide. This
reaction is highly exothermic.
KOH (aq) + HNO3 → KNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
On industrial scale it is prepared by the double displacement reaction between sodium nitrate and
potassium chloride.
NaNO3 (aq) + KCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + KNO3 (aq)
 C4
 C-4 or Composition C-4 is a
common variety of the plastic
explosive family known
as Composition C. A similar British
plastic explosive, based on RDX but
with different plasticizer than
Composition C-4, is known as PE-
4 (Plastic Explosive No. 4). C-4 is
composed of explosives, plastic
binder, plasticizer to make it
malleable, and usually a marker or
odorizing taggant chemical.
 C-4 has a texture similar to modelling
clay and can be molded into any
desired shape. C-4 is metastable and
can be exploded only by the shock
wave from a detonator or blasting
cap.
 The exploding compound is RDX.
 RDX
 RDX is an organic compound with the formula (O2NNCH2)3. It is a
white solid without smell or taste, widely used as
an explosive. Chemically, it is classified as a nitramide, chemically
similar to HMX. A more energetic explosive than TNT, it was used
widely in World War II and remains common in military applications.
 It is often used in mixtures with other explosives
and plasticizers or phlegmatizers (desensitizers); it is the explosive
agent in C-4 plastic explosive. RDX is stable in storage and is
considered one of the most energetic and brisant of the military high
explosives, with a relative effectiveness factor of 1.60.
 synthesis
 RDX is classified by chemists as a hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine derivative. It is
obtained by treating hexamine with white fuming nitric acid.

This nitrolysis reaction also produces methylene dinitrate (not to be confused

with dinitromethane), ammonium nitrate, and water as byproducts. The overall
reaction is:
C6H12N4 + 10 HNO3 → C3H6N6O6 + 3 CH2(ONO2)2 + NH4NO3 + 3 H2O
Modern syntheses employ hexahydro triacyl triazine as it avoids formation of HMX.
 TNT
densit explosiv molecul name chemical sensitivit boiling melting
y e ar mass formula y point point
velocity
1.654 m/s 7028 227.13 trinitrotoluene C7H5N3O6 very low C° 295 C° 80.1
g/mL g/mol
 Organic compound produced by the nitration of toluene in the
presence of concentrated sulfuric acid .
 nitroglycerine
density explosive molecul chemic sensitivity boiling point melting
velocity ar mass al point
formula
1.5918 m/s 7700 227.09 C3H5N3 very high decomposes at C° 13.5
g/mL g/mol O9 50-60 °C
Detecting Explosives
Today's challenge is not safe handling of explosives3. Neutron Beam: Technology called Prompt
but early detection when used by Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis
terrorists. Here are 4 methods: (PGNAA) directs beam of neutrons. When neutrons
Explosives contact contaminant, they instantly
1. Canines: ATF's explosives-detecting canine produce high energy gamma rays. Explosives are
training program was established in 1992. identified from energy of gamma rays.
Although not 4. Lasers: Carbon dioxide laser scans/analyzes
high tech, canines can detect minute quantities forbaggage surfaces. The interaction of laser
a variety of explosives. radiation with traces of explosive causes micro
2. Chemical Sensor: Portable system the size of bursts. Explosives are identified from light
soccer ball is being developed by generated by bursts.
Sandia Laboratories that can detect/identify
smallest traces of explosives. Known as
chemical sensor system, molecules are collected
on a fiber and "ion mobility spectrometer"
identifies type of explosive.
 thermite
In the following example, elemental aluminium reduces the oxide of
another metal,
in this common example iron oxide,
because aluminium forms stronger and more stable
bonds with oxygen than iron:
Fe2O3 + 2 Al → 2 Fe + Al2O3
The products are aluminium oxide,
elemental iron, and a large amount of heat.
The reactants are commonly powdered and
mixed with a binder to keep the material solid and prevent separation.
Other metal oxides can be used, such as chromium oxide, to generate
the given metal in its elemental form.
For example, a copper thermite reaction using copper oxide and
elemental aluminium can be used for creating electric joints in a
process called cadwelding, that produces elemental copper (it may
react violently):
3 CuO + 2 Al → 3 Cu + Al2O3
Thermites with nanosized particles are described by a variety of terms,
such as metastable intermolecular composites, super-thermite, nano-
ballistics

It is the science that studies the motion of a projectile (projected from 

.a firearm weapon)
 Anatomy of the Gun
Action
Muzzle Chamber

Barrel

Hammer
Magazine
(Clip)

Myths and Mechanisms of Firearm Injuries

• Classification of firearm
weapons:

 According to the length of the barrel:

 Long barreled e.g: service rifle automatic & non automatic.
short barreled e.g.: pistol .2
(automatic),revolver(old, new)
:According to the number of projectiles

 Single missile firing (bullet) e.g: service rifle, automatic pistol &
revolver (old, new).
 Multiple missile firing(shots or pellets) e.g: sporting gun.
According to the inner surface of the
:barrel

 Rifled weapons e.g: service rifle (long barreled), automatic pistol,

revolver (short barreled).
 Non rifled weapons(smooth bore weapons) e.g: sporting gun.
? What is rifling
 It is a number of parallel but spiral lands (projecting ridges) and
grooves (depressed spirals between the lands) on the interior of
the barrel from the breech to the muzzle.
1.1.12 Rifling twist rate calculation
One of the fi rst persons to try to develop a formula for calculating the correct
rate of twist for fi rearms was George Greenhill, a mathematics lecturer at
Emmanual College in Cambridge, England.
His formula is based on the rule that the twist required in calibres equals 150
divided by the length of the bullet in calibres. This can be simplifi ed to
Twist = 150 ×D2 L
where D = bullet diameter in inches and L = bullet length in inches.
This formula had limitations, but worked well up to and in the vicinity of
about 1800 fps. For higher velocities, most ballistic experts suggest substituting
180 for 150 in the formula.
The Greenhill formula is simple and easy to apply and gives a useful approximation
to the desired twist. It was based on a bullet with a specifi c gravity of
10.9, which is approximately correct for a jacketed lead - cored bullet.
In this equation, bullet weight does not directly enter into the equation. For
a given calibre, the heavier the bullet, the longer it will be. So bullet weight
affects bullet length, which is used in the formula.
For bullets with a specifi c gravity other than 10.9, then the formula
becomes
Rifling Twist Rate Required =CD2 L× SG 10.9
Whilst it is of little circumstance, the question as to the revolutions made per
minute by the bullet has been asked on several occasions. The formula for calculating
this is as follows:

RPM=MV x720/twist rate in inches

For example:
9 mm PB bullet at 1200 fps fi red in a barrel with a 1 in 10 twist rate will have
a rotational speed of 1200 × 720/10 = 86 400 rpm
0.223 ″ bullet at 3000 fps fi red in a barrel with a 1 in 12 twist rate will have a
rotational speed of 3000 × 720/12 = 180 000 rpm
Once again, whilst it has little relevance in everyday case examination, the
question as to the rotational speed (revolutions per minute, rpm) and the
number of times that a bullet will make a full rotation whilst passing through
an object can be asked .This question was posed in relation to a murder case where one of
several
bullets which had hit the deceased had cut a trough (often called a ‘ gutter
wound ’ ) across the victim ’ s arm. The bullet wound was black and the defense
counsel were of the opinion that this was caused ‘ by the bullet rotating so fast
that it had burnt the flesh to carbon ’ .This was extremely easy to refute as the barrel of the
weapon concerned had
a 1 in 10 ″ rate of twist, which means that the bullet rotated once in every 10 in.
of travel. As the wound on the arm was barely 2 in. in length, the bullet would
not have made more than 1
5 of a rotation during that distance . The blackening, as can be seen from the following

photograph, was simply old congealed blood

:Functions of rifling are

:Spiraling motion of the bullet which leads to .1

.Increase distance of firing 

.Increase power of penetration 
.Gyroscopic steadiness .2
:It differs from one weapon to another according to.3
.Number of lands and grooves 
.Direction of twist 
.Width of lands and grooves 
.Depth of the grooves 
.So it is considered as family characteristic 
Ammunition for rifled weapons

Is a cartridge that consists of a cartridge case and a bullet 

.(projectile)
Service rifle cartridge
(long barreled, rifled, single missile
firing)
.The cartridge consists of a case and a bullet 
 :The case
.Long, narrow &it has a shoulder 
.Made of brass or copper 
In automatic SR: the base of 
.the cartridge case is grooved
-In non automatic S.R: the base of the 
.cartridge case is rimmed
 :From the bottom 
.The base of the cartridge contains the percussion cap
Mechanism of firing
.The case contains primer & propellant powder 
Anatomy of the cartridge
Contents of the complete
:cartridge
The primer(igniting powder).1
It is the paste that lines the percussion cap
:It consists of
.Mercury fulminate(explosive) .a

.Potassium nitrate or chlorate(source of oxygen) .b

.Powdered glass(friction surface) .c

 :propellant powder.2
.It is the actual source of energy 
.It accelerates the projectile to a certain velocity 
The pressure of a compressed gas acting on the base of the projectile 
.is the necessary propelling force
This pressure is obtained by the combustion of a chemical compound 
.in a limited volume
:So propellant powder must be 
.easily combustible .1
.release great quantity of gas on combustion .2
 : The bullet is
.Long with pointed tip or sometimes dome shaped (rounded)
 All military rifled projectiles are fully jacketed, have a pointed 
aerodynamic shape because of the relatively long distances they
.must cover
Short barreled rifled weapons

:These weapons may be

,Automatic pistol (automatic) 
.Revolver(old or new), nonautomatic 
Ammunition of short barreled
.rifled weapons
.A cartridge that consists of a case and a bullet
 :Case
.Short, narrow and it has no shoulder 
.Made of brass or copper 
In automatic pistol, the 
.base is grooved
,In revolver(old and new) 
.the base is rimmed
 :The bullet
.Short and dome shaped 
.Bullets of automatic pistol is fully jacketed 
Bullets of revolver may be 
,jacketed (new revolver)
.or non jacketed (old revolver)
 All-over
copper plating Lead core is
eliminates swaged
exposed lead to assure
surfaces. maximum
Prevents consistency,
formation quality
of hazardous and
lead vapor. accuracy.
Sporting gun
(non rifled, multiple
missile firing)
Ammunition for sporting gun
Consists of cartridges
:with )shells(
,pellets (shots) 

wads and 

.powder 
 :The shell
Consists of a base made of brass and an upper part made of cardboard 
.or plastic
The centre of the base contains the percussion cap which is lined by 
.the igniting powder (primer)
,Above the base 
a space is filled by
,the propellant powder
,then the inner wad
followed by the pellets
and lastly )shots(
.the outer wad
 :Inner wad
.Thick, disk shaped 
.Made of felt, cardboard or plastic 
Functions of inner wad

.separates propellant powder from shots .1

acts as a gas seal by preventing the escape of gases between the .2

.shots
Acts as one of the shots producing damage (penetrates the body at .3
3m, hits the body causing rounded abrasion or bruises at 3-10m and
.after 10m it falls producing no effect
.It helps in estimation of distance of firing .4
:Other functions

.Helps to identify the weapon and its type .5

.Helps to identify the gauge of the weapon .6

.Cleans the barrel as it passes through .7

.Leads to a smooth acceleration of the whole load of shots .8

 :Outer wad
.Thin disc shaped 
.Made of plastic or cardboard 
Functions of outer wad

.Keeps shots from falling .1

acts as one of the shots producing damage (penetrates the body at .2

1m, hits the body causing circular abrasion and contusion at 1-3m
.and after 3m it falls producing no damage
.It helps in estimation of distance of firing .3
.Nowadays the inner and outer wad is replaced by a plastic cup 
,Which has wings
.Causes more damage
:Functions
.As inner wad but 2-5m
Pellets (shots)
,Are rounded 
,Made of lead 
Of different sizes according 
to the gauge of
.the weapon
Types of propellant powder

black powder .1

:Composed of
Carbon 12.5% 
Sulfur 12.5% 
Potassium nitrate 75% 
smokeless .2
powder
:Composed of
Nitrocellulose 60% 
Nitroglycerine 35% 
Mineral gel 5% 
 Black powder Smokeless
Carbon, sulfur, potassium
.nitrate
.1
powder
Nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, .1
Irregular black clumps or fine .2
.mineral gel
.smooth powder
Different but uniform shapes, .2
One volume produces 300 ml .3
.colors and sizes
.volumes of gases
One volume produces 1300 .3
.ml volumes of gases
 Black powder
Alkaline residue of
.carbonate and bicarbonate
.4
Smokeless
.Sporting gun, old revolver .5 powder
Blackening within aroundNeutral
.6 residue of nitrites and .4
.the inlet .nitrates
Sporting gun, rifled weapons .5
.except old revolver
.Grayish color .6
Signs of firing

.Signs of firing on a bullet .1

.Primary rifle marks 

.Secondary rifle marks 
.Signs of firing on a cartridge .2
.Firing pin marks 
Signs of firing on a bullet

:Primary rifle marks

:definition
Longitudinal parallel oblique grooves on the surface of the fired bullet
resulting from rifling inside the barrel equivalent to them as regards
.their number, depth, width& direction of twist
Caused by the rifling of the gun when the bullet travels through the 
.barrel
Family characteristic or rifling characteristic of bullets can give clue 
to the manufacturing and model of the firearm weapon from which
.they were fired
.Seen by naked eye 
.Only screening not confirmatory 
 Secondary rifle marks
:Definition
.They are irregular scratches on the surface of fired bullet
Caused by defects or irregularities in the barrel of the gun or in its
.muzzle
They are considered confirmatory marks that act as a signature of 
.the used gun on the fired bullet
.They form the individual characteristics of the barrel 
.Seen only by comparison microscope 
Comparison
Microscope
Bullet viewed with Comparison
Microscope
Comparison of Casing Striations

Image from http://www.crimescenetwo.com/index2.html

Signs of firing on a cartridge

:Firing pin marks

Is an impression (dimple) of the striking portion of the firing pin on 
.the percussion cap at the base of the cartridge
?What is the sample

: Samples may be 
Complete cartridge .1

:of either
Service rifle .a

automatic (the case is grooved)

or
non automatic SR
(the case is rimmed)
Automatic pistol .b

The case is grooved

 Old revolver .c

.The case is rimmed 

the bullet 

.is unjacketed
 New revolver .d

.The case is rimmed 

.The bullet is jacketed 
.Sporting gun 
:Complete cartridge of any weapon may be either
.Non fired
.Misfired
Differentiated by 
the dimple on
.the percussion cap
 :Fired empty case of .2

.Automatic service rifle .a

Long, narrow & it has 

.a shoulder
.Grooved 
b. Non automatic
service rifle.
• Long, narrow & it
has a shoulder.
• Rimmed.
.Automatic pistol .c

Short, narrow &it has 

.no shoulder
.Grooved 
.Old & new revolver .d

Short, narrow & it has 

.no shoulder
.Rimmed 
.Sporting gun .e
Empty case may be fired (has a dimple on percussion cap) or non 
.fired
 :Bullets .3

:May be
Fired (longitudinal oblique parallel grooves on its surface = primary 
.rifle marks)
.Extracted (transverse lines on its surface) 
.Non fired (smooth surface) 
:Bullet of service rifle .a

Long with pointed tip 

)may be rounded tip( 
:Bullet of automatic pistol or new revolver .b

Short, dome shaped 

Fully jacketed 
.)copper(
Bullet of old .c

:revolver
.Short, dome shaped 
Non jacketed (lead) 
 .Shots .4

:Propellant powder .5

.Black or smokeless powder

.Name, description, composition& weapons
:Wads .6

.Inner wad or outer wad

.Name, description& function
.Plastic cup .7

.Name, function
Thank you