Secondary School Curriculum &

Instruction (PGDT-413)
 The Concept of Curriculum
Curriculum
 Latin root of the word "currere", which means, "to run" as in to run a race course.
 the course / path that students have to run to finish the "race".
 all the activities which students need to do if they are to finish a program of study and achieve
the intended learning goals.
Broad definitions`
 A plan for action or a written document that includes strategies for achieving desired goals or
ends /Tyler, Taba/.
 A plan for providing sets of learning opportunities for persons to be educated /Saylor/.
 An organized set of formal education and/or training intentions/ Pratt/.
 All experiences of the learners have under the guidance of school// Dewey, Caswell/
 On going experiences of children under the guidance of the school/Ragan/
 A program /the school/ offers to its students.
 What is taught both inside and outside of school directed by the school.
 Everything that is planned by school personnel.
 A series of experiences undergone by learners in school.
 An individual learner experiences as a result of schooling.
 Specific Definitions
Curriculum refers to:

which is
a course of taught in
study. school.
a set of
subjects.
a set of
performanc
e objectives.
Curriculum
content.

a sequence of
courses.
a set of materials. a program of
studies.
 Definition Based on School Role

• Promoting students intellectual capacity.

Sub • The collection of subjects offered to students to train the
ject intellectual capacity.
Cen
ter

• Means to make students shape a new social order and

lead life in it (Planning to evaluation).
Experience
center

• Enacted between students and teacher, collaboration

Constructivist and reflection in a community of enquiry.
View
 
Thus curriculum:

 in a narrow sense is subjects taught/ an outline of

the course of study/ a sequences of course of study/
a plan for action.
 broadly all the experiences of learners, both in
and out school, that are directed by the
educational institution towards the achievement of
educational goals.
 a state document utilized to help students achieve
the objectives of the educational program (acquire
knowledge , form attitudes and develop skills).
 Why we Study about Curriculum?

As a teacher, we need to know what curriculum means in order to:

– Relate education to the socio-economic, technological, political
and environmental demands of the society.
– Relate content or the body of knowledge to local setting.
– Apply the most effective and relevant teaching and learning
methodologies and materials.
– Evaluate teaching and learning processes in education system.
 The Scope of Curriculum

Curriculum scope refers to the knowledge of curriculum

development, planning and design.
Curriculum Development: concerned with how curriculum
evolved, implemented, evaluated and what various people,
process, and procedures are involved in the construction of
the curriculum.
Curriculum Planning: is the process of making the
curriculum materials after identification of objectives,
selection of contents, learning experiences, instructional
materials and evaluation mechanism.
Curriculum Design: the way one conceptualizes a
curriculum arrange its major components to provide
direction and guidance in developing the curriculum.
 1.2. Foundations of Curriculum
Foundations of curriculum refers to:
 The “why” of experiences children have in the school.
 The values, traditions, forces and professional understandings which
determines what the school does.
 Basic forces that influence and shape the content and organization of
the curriculum.
 They are often referred to as the sources or determinants of the
curriculum.
 The most commonly accepted foundations of the curriculum are:
Foundations of Curriculum………

Philosophical
Foundations

Sociological Foundations Psychological

foundations of Curriculum foundations

Science &
Historical technology
foundations
 1.2.1. Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum

Philosophy is:
• Love of wisdom/ search for truth or the search for knowledge.
• gives meaning to our decisions and actions.
• deals with the larger aspects of life, the problems and prospects for living and
• determines, our educational decisions, choices and alternatives.
 framework or base for organizing schools and classrooms.
 answer what schools are for, what subjects are of value, how students learn, what
method s and materials to use.
• Thus, the three main basic philosophical questions include:
– What is real? Metaphysic
– What is truth? Epistemology
– What is of value? Axiology
 There are different philosophies but, all wants the same thing of education, they wish:
• To improve the educational process
• To enhance learners’ achievement
• To produce better and more productive citizens, and
• To improve the life of the society.
Major Philosophies Influencing Curriculum

Major Philosophies

Realism/ Pragmatism/ Existentialism

Idealism
Naturalism Experimentalism
 1. Idealism
 One of the oldest.
 Proponent: Plato, Kant, Hegel, Froebel, Butler, etc.
 mind is central element of philosophy;
 Give primacy to idea. The idealist assumes that:
 truth exist separate and apart from individual /society he lives.
 Emphasizes moral and spiritual reality as chief explanation of the world.
 Truth and values are seen as absolute, timeless and universal.
 The world of idea and mind are permanent, regular and orderly and it
represents a perfect order.
 Eternal ideas are unalterable and timeless.
 To know is to rethink the latent ideas that are already present in the mind.
 The teacher’s task is to bring the latent knowledge to consciousness.
 Use rationalistic approach-deductive to problem solving.
 Idealism……..
Education:
 Purpose to transmit cultural heritage.
 Eternal process of superior adjustment of the physical and mental
developed human being to God.
Curriculum:
 prefer the order and pattern of subject matter that relates ideas and
concepts to each other.
 Is hierarchal and it constitutes the cultural heritages of humankind.
 At the top of hierarchy the most general and abstract subjects like
philosophy and theology.
 Based on learned disciplines (liberal arts)
 Revolves around ideas drawn from the past.
 2. Realism
 View the world in terms of objects and matter.
 Realism means objects exist in real world separate and apart
from the human mind and perception.
 Proponents; Aristotle T.Aquinas, Pestalozzi, Broudy, etc.
 People come to know the world through their sense and their
reason.
 Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its law.
 Universe is matter in motion.
 The real world is the physical world.
 Reality and truth emanate from both science and art.
 Use inductive method of gathering data.
 Emphasizes cause-effect relationships in the physical world.
 Realism……..
Education:
 To induct the learner into culture.
 Society and its institutions must operate in ways that are
consistent to natural laws.
 School is social agency which transmits natural laws to learners.
Curriculum:
 Consists primarily the physical and social sciences that explain
the natural phenomena.
 Acquiring of subject matter/facts encouraged.
 Consists of organized, separate subject matter, content and
knowledge that classify objects.
 View subject matter experts as a sources of authority.
 3. Pragmatism/Experimentalism

Based on change, process and relativism.

Proponents: C. Darwin, J. Dewey, W. Kilpatrick, Bode, etc.
truth is based on one’s experiences; situational experiences
Considers knowledge as a process in which reality is constantly
changing.
Learning occurs as persons engage in problem solving.
Knowledge is considered a transaction between learner and
environment. Basic to this interaction is the notion of change.
Both the learner and environment are constantly changing as
are the experiences/interaction.
Hypothesis is used in seeking knowledge.
Both deductive and inductive methods are used.
 Pragmatism………
Education:
• a process of experiencing on the part of the learner.
• A means for reacting, controlling and directing experience.
• The goal of ed. is to aid the learner to solve his/her problems.
• Not regarded as preparation for life, rather it is considered to be an integral
part of life.
• The role of the teacher is facilitator.
• Is reconstruction and reorganization of experience.
• Learning takes place in an active way as learners, either individually or in
groups solves problems.
Curriculum:
 Emphasizes the interest of the learner than subject matter to organize
curriculum.
 The method is more important than the subject matter.
 Teaching is more exploratory than explanatory.
 4. Existentialism
 Stress individualism and personal self-fulfillment.
 Proponents: M.Greene, G.Kneller, Morris, etc.
 the world of existence, choice, and responsibility is primary.
 Personal choice is central the decision lead to personal self -definition.
Education:
• should stress individual responsibility and choice.
• is a process that originates within the self.
• The student is responsible for his/her own motivation and learning.
• The teacher’s task is to provide learning experiences that promotes
autonomy, interaction, and choice.
 The learners would choose the knowledge they wish to possess.
Curriculum :
• avoid systematic knowledge or structured disciplines.
 Major Educational Philosophies

Educational
Philosophies

Reconstructi
Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism
onism
 A. Perennialism
 Oldest and rooted in realism.
 Proponent R. Hutchins.
 Relies on past asserted by agreed-upon, universal knowledge and cherished
values of society.
 A plea for the permanency of knowledge.
 A view of the unchanging nature of the universe, human nature, truth,
knowledge, virtue, beauty, etc.
 The goal of education is to develop the natural person and to uncover
universal truth by training the intellect.
Curriculum: Subject centered-liberal arts.
The teacher: is viewed as an authority in the field whose knowledge
and expertise are unquestionable.
Teaching method: based on Socratic Method. i.e not memorize.
Student’s: mind as a sponge for absorbing knowledge.
 B. Essentialism
• Rooted in both idealism and realism.
• Proponents: Bagley, Bestor, Rickover,etc.
• School curriculum should be geared to fundamentals or
essentials.
Curriculum: Subject centered but concerned with the
contemporary scene (issue).
Teacher’s role: is as an authority in the field.
• The back-to-the basics focus on reading, writing and
Mathematics.
• Stress on increasing time and improving the quality of
instruction, upgrading teachers and schools analyizing education
interms of inputs( books, writting lab. and outputs( outcome).
 C. Progressivism
• Rooted in pragmatism and considered as contemporary.
• Proponents: Follette, Roosevelt, etc.
• The skills and tools of learning include problem solving
and scientific inquiry.
• Emphasize on how to think not on what to think.
Curriculum: was interdisciplinary in nature and focused
on the child as the learner .
Teacher’s role: is guiding.
Methods: emphasized on activities and experiences rather
than competitive individualized lesson learning.
 D. Reconstructionism
• Rooted in pragmatism.
• Mainly served the individual child.
• Proponents: Fantini,
• Education for change and social reform.
• Emphasis on society centered education.
• Curriculum that emphasizes cultural pluralism,
• Focus on internationalism and futurisng education.
• Teacher serve as an agent of change and reform.
• Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of many
nations.
• Curriculum has to be changed with the society.
• Learning is active.
 1.2.2.Psychological Foundations of Curriculum

Psychological foundations of curriculum:

 are those knowledge and understandings related to the nature
of the learner and learning process .
 strongly influence the content and arrangements of the
experiences provided for learners .
Psychology and curriculum: Psychology
 provides a basis for understanding the teaching and learning
process.
 cements the relationship between teaching and learning.
 Provides the theories and principles that influence student-
teacher behavior within the context of curriculum.
 used as a means for screening objectives.
 1.2.2.Psychological Foundations…

Major Theories of Learning as Foundations of Curriculum

1/ Mental discipline
 Known as faculty psychology.
 Mind was made up of series of faculties each of which was
related to a particular function or ability of the mind.
Learning:
 exercising various faculties(e.g.memory,muscles,etc)
Curriculum:
 content was often chosen on the basis of how well it will
discipline and exercise the mind rather than its value in
the life of the student.
 2. Connectionism

Connectionism:
 is a theory of learning based on the connection of various elements of the nervous system
in causing behavior.
Learning:
 Was the process of formulating the neural passages or connections. Once these
connections have been established, behavior may be repeated under similar conditions
indicating that learning has occurred.
 E.Thorndike three laws
a/ The law of effect:
 Effect either strengthen or weaken connection.
b/The law of readiness: make students to ready.
 The tendency of the physiological neurons to operate.
c/ The law of exercise:
 Repeating or exercise strengthens connection and v-versa.
Curriculum: demand drill and repetitions.
 Experiences are selected on the basis of their securing a satisfying reaction from the
learner.
 3. Behaviorism
• Behavior was dealt with and explained in terms of observable
reactions.
• Most of their experiments dealt with the conditioned response.
Learning:
 explained as a conditioned response. Stimulus-Response
 Occurs when a particular response is desired and a stimulus is
found to produce it.
 There is much concern for reinforcement, association and habit
formation.
Curriculum:
 Drill remained a prominent method of teaching and experiences
selected were such as to produce conditioned responses.
 4. Gestalt
 Pattern which is important.
 Understanding is based upon insight.
Learning:
 is the organization of parts into meaningful whole.
 A learning situation is taken as a problem situation seeking solutions
by which the learner develops insight.
Curriculum:
 Offers the learner an opportunity to discover processes and
relationships.
 Emphasis is placed upon perceiving a whole in order to understand
the importance of a specific.
 Generalities and principles are emphasized in preference to isolated
facts and meaningless drill.
3. Sociological Foundation of Curriculum
 refers to concepts and theories of the way that groups
manifest themselves in their culture.
 analyses the relationships of individuals, groups and
institutions and their `contribution to the process and
growth of the educational system as well as established
practices in the school system.
 curriculum designer is actually dealing with cultural
value, societal needs and the learners’ background.
Thus, cultures affect and shape the schools and their
curricula. Likewise, schools influence the cultures of the
people that the school serve. `` ``
4. Historical Foundations of Curriculum
 refers to those influence on the curriculum that are derived from the developments
in the past influencing the present.
 Form the basis for decision making and systematic growth of the educational
system.
In the prehistoric times:
 the informal type of education focused on transmitting the cultural heritage.
The Egyptians: had a form of writings, drawings and used phonetics.
The Greeks: had schools designed to serve the public good in Athens and Sparta.
The Romans: Upgraded elementary to secondary schools.
The Early Christian education:
 added philosophy and theology to earlier seven Liberal Arts .
During Renaissance:
The curriculum was based on the study of man and scientific thinking refocused.
The Scientific Sprit:
 Had view that if human kind followed reason and used the scientific method and
natural laws continued progress in this planet is possible.
 5. Science & Technology Foundation
 Science and technology make things obsolete in a short
period of time
 it demands a high level of efficiency from citizen as a must in
every field. Its implications to curriculum planning are that:
• The need for the inclusion of many things to be learned and
culture to be transmitted
• Updating the curriculum to satisfy the increasing demand of
skilled manpower
• The unlimited demands for intercultural exchange
• Securing knowledge about what is going on around the
world and making it part of once life.
 1.3. Teachers Role and the Major
Curriculum Views
• Formal education is led by well-designed curriculum which is
expected to be implemented by teachers. Therefore, curriculum
and teachers have strong relationship. The role of the teacher in
relation to curriculum could be explained as follows:
• 1. Work as an instructional designer: Teachers may have focused
on the learners’ developmental, emotional and affective needs
in their teaching.
• 2. Work as an intercultural practitioner (primarily for language
and culture teachers): it is helpful for teachers to ask what
culture is, how we detect the nuanced cultural difference in
teaching, and how we lead students cross the boundaries of
difference cultures.
 1.3. Teachers Role …
• 3. Work with their colleagues to adapt the curricular standards to their
own teaching: There are multiple standards for curriculum all over the
world.
• 4. Work as an effective room manager: Classroom management is not
separated from academic curriculum.
• 5. Work with parents and community in designing your schoolwork and
homework: classroom is not the only place that curriculum should be
learn and mature to become adults.
• 1. Objectives: explains the learning goals of the activity
• 2. First draft: gives the student space to write and edit. A student who
needs more space may add paper.
• 3. Interactions: guides the student to conduct a family survey or
interview, talk with a family partner about ideas or memories, or conduct
other interactions.
 1.4. The Need and Purposes of Curriculum Knowledge and the Teacher

• The knowledge of curriculum is important to make educational

discussions and decisions. The relationship between curriculum and
instruction could be explained in the following four different models.
• Dualistic Model: This model views the relationship between
curriculum and instruction as two independent entities with very
minor interaction.
• Inter-locking Model: It views the relationship between curriculum
and instruction as highly intertwined.
• Concentric Model: This model considers curriculum and instruction
as system and sub- system interchangeably.
• Cyclical Model: this model considered the relationship between
curriculum and instruction as interdependent having significant
impacts on each other.
 Unit Two
Curriculum Development Process and Models
2.1.Definition of Curriculum Development, Curriculum Design
and Curriculum Planning
Curriculum Development
 is more comprehensive term.
 It includes planning, implementation, and evaluation.
Curriculum Planning
 is a preliminary phase of curriculum development when the curriculum
workers make discussions and take actions to establish the plan that
teachers and students will carryout.
 It is the thinking and design phase.
Curriculum Design
 Refers to the way we conceptualize the curriculum and arrange its major
components to provide direction and guidance as we develop the
curriculum.
 2.2.Curriculum Development Models:
Types and their Assumptions
1. The objective / Ends-Means / Model
 Also known as rational, classical or technical-scientific model.
 Emphasizes fixed sequence starting from objective.
 Objective serve as a basis for devising subsequent elements.
 The two principal proponents of this model are Ralph Tyler and
Hilda Taba.
a/ The Tyler Model four basic principles:
Suggest those involved in curriculum inquiry must try to define:
1. Purposes of the school (Objectives),
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes,
3.Organiztion of these experiences and
4. Evaluation of the purposes.
 Tyler’s Model
Setting Objectives
(Sources-Society, Learners & Subject Matter)
Screening (Philosophical &Psychological)

Selection of Learning Experiences

Organization of Learning Experiences

Evaluation
 The Taba Model: Grass root Rational
• Suggest those who teach the curriculum should participate in
developing it.
• The users of the program should design the curriculum.
• Advocate inductive and bottom-up approach in curriculum
development.
• Noted the following seven steps to the model:
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of contents
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning` activities
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation
 The Wheeler Model

• Converted Tyler’s original ideas into cyclic form and evaluation

should take place at every stage.
• The first step is the statement of aims, goals and objectives.
A. Ultimate goals
• Are the expected outcomes expressed as patterns of categories
of behavior over time.
B. Mediate goals
• Expected behavior at given stage over ed. time.
C. Proximate goals
• Goals for shorter periods.
D. Specific objectives
• Goals for specific period.
 The Wheeler Model
1.Aims, goals
& objectives

2.Selection of
5. Evaluation learning
experience

4.Organization
and integration 3.Selection of
of learning content
experiences
 2. The Process /Means-Ends/ Model
• Developed by L. Stenhouse
• Specify content and principles of procedures than objectives.
• The end product is not specified before hand in terms of
behavior.
• Behavioral objectives are absent.
• More concerned with teaching content.
Steps involved:
 Selection of content
 Selection of principle or procedure (learning strategies)
 Developing teaching methods and materials
 Evaluating by criteria inherent in the field of knowledge
 3.Situation Analysis /Process-Product/
School-Based Model
This model is:
 the latest/recent model of curriculum development.
 shares the idea of process model, but emphasizes meeting standards .
 puts curriculum development firmly within a contextual framework.
 teachers modify and transform learners’ experiences in the curriculum.
 curriculum development should be based on the context where learning is
taking place including national, societal and institutional.
 Assumes institution-based curriculum development is one of the most effective
ways of promoting genuine change at institutional level .
 both close-ended and open-ended evaluations are very common.
 The stages in this model are:
1. Situation analysis
2. Goal Formulation 4. Interpretation and Implementation
3. Program building 5. Monitoring, Assessment, Feedback and Reconstruction
 4. A Hybrid Model

A hybrid model that features elements of the objective, process and situation
analysis models is made up of the following steps:
1. Diagnosis of needs /Need assessment/Situation analysis/
2. Formulation/Identifications of objectives
3. Selection of curriculum contents
4. The selection of learning experiences
5. Organization of curricular experiences (Contents and learning experiences)
6. Pilot testing
7. Revising and consolidating
8. Approval governing council
9. Use of the approved curriculum
10. Periodic review
 2.3.Curriculum Planning Process
2.3.1. Conducting Need Assessment /Situational Analysis / Diagnosis of Needs/

 Needs are the gaps between the current state and desired changes.
Whose needs to be assessed?
1.The need of the society: refers to assessing the culture, value, attitudes and norms, etc.
2.The needs of the learner: social , cultural , language and perception , cognitive, physical,
3. The needs of the subject matter: knowledge relevant to contemporary life, to the
education of the intended learner and the society.
Basic considerations in needs assessment: should be a continuing activity that takes place:
a) Before specification of curricular goal and objectives.
b) After identification of curricular goals and objectives.
c) After evaluation of instruction, and d) After evaluation of the curriculum.
Instrument of Data Collection for Need Assessment include:
Questionnaires, Interview, Public Hearings, Observation, Document Analysis, etc.
2.3.2. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives

Educational Philosophy

Educational Aims

Educational Goals

General Objectives

Specific Objectives
 2.3.3. Formulation of educational aims, goals, and objectives

1. Educational Aims
• give general direction to education universally throughout the country.
• visionary statements that indicate where to go .
• answer the question “why to educate/train?”
• achieved in long time and can be divided in to several goals.
 Ends striven for education in general.
 Stated at national level. Applied to the system.
 They are of long term. E.g. dev’t of democratic attitude.
 Very broad statements of purposes of education.
 Equated with ends, functions, and purposes..
2. Educational Goals
 Results from learning over the years.
 Stated at institutional level and across subject matters of schooling.
 of medium terms.
 defined as general program expectations.
3. Formulating educational objectives
 Indicate in more specific terms the outcomes.
 Intended educational consequences of a particular course /unit.
 Statement of intent about anticipated changes in learner at classroom level
 2.4. Criteria for setting Objectives
The following points must be kept into consideration for this :-
Matching – objectives should be related to the broad goals of
education from which they are derived.
Worth – it relates to weather attaining an objective has value in the
life of the student in the present or future.
Wording – he statements of the objectives should be worded
properly.
Appropriateness – all objects should be derived from and cater to
the needs and interests of the students.
Logical grouping – the objectives should be properly organized in a
coherent manner.
Revision – the objectives needs periodic revision because the needs,
knowledge change at a fast pace.
 2.5. Selection of contents and
Learning Experiences
Curriculum experiences consists of two components: Contents and learning experiences.
Curriculum content are:
 elements of information to be learned by students: concepts, facts, principles, rules, etc.

Criteria for content selection

Utility: Usefulness of the content
Relevance to life : the content should be functional to the life of the learner .
Validity : the authenticity or actual contribution of the content to stated objectives.
Learnability: optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of the
content.
Feasibility: the content in the light of the time and resources available.
Comprehensiveness: Content should have corresponding objectives.
Suitability/Appropriateness: content should be to the level of the learner.
Interest- the content should suit the personality and intellectual capabilities of the students
 2.5.1. Selection of learning experiences

Learning experiences refers to :

• the interactions of the learners with their environment in their effort to
acquire the contents.
• the mental operational of students in the teaching learning process.
• learning activities which shape the learner’s orientation to the content
and ultimately their understanding of it.
Principles of selecting learning experiences
 that give an opportunity to the learner practice the kind of behavior
implied by the objectives
 be such that the students obtain satisfaction from carrying out the kind
of behavior implied by the objectives.
 The reactions desired in the experience must be within the range of the
students involved.
 should be as varied as the objectives they represent at minimum.
2.6. Definition of Curriculum Organization
Curriculum organization is defined as the
arrangement of the components or elements of a
curriculum into a substantive entity.
These elements are aims, goals, objectives, subject
matter or content, learning activities and
evaluation.
Moreover, curriculum organization deals with the
pattern or the arrangement of these elements; that
is, it focuses on how these elements can be
brought together to form a systematic unity.
 2.6.1. Organization of Contents and
Learning Experiences
 To make contents learnable and to bring about the slow
but profound change in behavior there is a need to
organize contents and learning experiences.
 According to Taba, if contents and learning experiences are
not organized, learning becomes something done
disorderly and incidentally.
 There are the vertical and horizontal relations in organizing
Contents and Learning Experiences.
 Vertical relation is characterized by the criterion of level
and the horizontal by the criterion of relation across
subjects.
 2.6.2. Organizing Principles
 Organizing principles are:
 Extending the concept by increasing the range of experience
that provides for the development of the concept.
 Extending the concept by broadening the range of respects
in which the experiences occurs: For instance, to recognize
inter-dependence in respect of economic matters, social
matters, in aesthetic matters and the like.
 Chronological principle: It enables learners see the
development of events over time.
 Increasing the breadth of application, increasing the range of
activities included.
2.6.3. Criteria for Curriculum Organization

Organization

Horizontal Vertical

Integratio
Scope Continuity Sequence
n
 2.6.3. Criteria for curriculum…….

Horizontal organization : describes the scope and integration of content

taught concurrently .
Scope :deals with breadth and depth of the curriculum content.
Integration: refers to the linking of all types of knowledge and
experiences contained within the curriculum plan. It emphasizes
horizontal relations among various content or topics.
Vertical organization: describes the continuity and sequencing of
content.
Continuity: deals with the vertical repetition of curriculum components.
Sequence emphasizes the importance of having each successive
experience builds upon the preceding one but to go more broadly and
deeply into the matter involved.
Organizing Elements: Concepts, skills and Values
 Unit Three
3. Curriculum Implementation, Change and Evaluation
3.1. Curriculum Implementation
 is a process of putting the developed/planned curriculum into practice.
 is actual use of the curriculum.
 deals with the means accomplishing desired educational objectives.
 The process is developmental and occurs at different levels.
 Focus on the extent to which actual change in practice occurs and which
influence the extent of change.
 to consider the following dimensions.
• Planning (people, program & organization) in advance,
• Communication-establishing effectively,
• Cooperation-of various individuals and groups and
• Support- financial and material.
Approaches to Curriculum of Implementation

Implementation

Mutual
Fidelity Enactment
adaptation
 Approaches to Curriculum…

• determine the degree of implementation of

curricular change in relation to the planned.
• determine factors which facilitate or inhibit
implementation.
• focus on measuring the degree of curricular
change is implemented as planned.
1.Fidel • curricular knowledge is created by experts
ity outside classroom.
• teachers implement the curricular change
Perspe
created elsewhere as designed.
ctive • change is conceived as rational, systematic,
and linear process.
 Approaches to Curriculum…

• Curriculum knowledge is created by outside

experts but there is a room for teachers to adapt to
school or classroom context.
• Negotiation and flexibility exist b/n designers and
practitioners.
2. • Both the external sources of knowledge from the
teacher is also respected.
Mutu • Curriculum change is viewed as more unpredictable
al less linear process as more active consumer at end.
• The role of the teacher becomes more active in
Adap shaping the curriculum to meet the demands of the
local context.
tation
 Approaches to Curriculum…

• Curriculum is viewed as educational experiences

jointly created by students and teachers.
• The externally created curriculum is seen as a tool to
be used by students and teachers in creating their
own curriculum.
• Curriculum knowledge is seen as something
constructed by individual learner
Curric • Change is seen as a personal dev’t process both for
ulum teachers and students.
enactm • The role of the teacher is a curriculum developer who
ent together with the student create knowledge and
continuous growth for both
 3.1.1. Factors affecting curriculum
implementation
Need and Relevance: Need and relevance
refers to the perceived need to the part of
implementers.
Clarity: refers to understanding of goals and
means of an innovation by users.
Complexity: has to do with the difficulty and
extent of change required of users.
Quality and Practicality of Program: refers to
the quality and availability of materials.
 3.1.1. Factors affecting …
 As a whole, curriculum implementation can be affected
by the following variables:
The nature of the curriculum itself
The situation of the learners
The professional competence of the teacher
Availability of resources
The school environment
The out of school environment
The school-community relationship
The management practices in the school.
 3.2. Curriculum Change

 Any alteration in the aspect of the curriculum-

educational philosophy, values, objectives,
organizational structure, materials, teaching strategies,
assessment, etc.
 The process of curriculum change has three phases:
initiation, use and assessment.
Initiation: decisions taken in the construction of a new or
revised curriculum.
Use: implementing in relation to the intention.
Assessment: checking the degree of embedeness or
institutionalization.
 3.2.1. Change Typologies
Warren Bennie has identified the following types of changes:
• Those involved have equal power and function.
Pla • People identify and follow precise procedure
nne • Taken to be an ideal one.
d

• One group determine the goal excluding the other.

Coe • The group in control has the major power and works to
rcio maintain the unequal power balance.
n
• Mutual goal setting and fairly equal power
In distribution among groups take place.
ter • But those involved often lack of
ac deliberateness.
tio
n
 3.2.2. Change typologies according to complexities

 John McNeil has identified five types of changes as described

below.
1.Substitution: one element is substituted for another. E.g. the substituting a
new textbook for an old one.
2.Alteration: minor change and thus be readily adopted. E.g. use of graphing
calculator in mathematics teaching.
3. Perturbations: changes that are disruptive but teachers adjust to them
within a fairly short time. E.g. the assistant principal changes the timetable
.
4. Restructuring: changes that lead to a modification of the whole school
system. E.g. the introduction of an integrated curriculum requiring team
teaching.
5. Value Orientation: shifts in the fundamental value orientations of school
personnel. E.g. if the new teachers who join the school place more
emphasis on personal growth of students than academic performance, then
the value orientations or fundamental philosophies of the school changes.
 3.2.3. Resistance to Curriculum Change
The resistance to change can be attributed to various
factors.
• Inertia: Wanting to keep things as they are is often mixed
with believing that things do not need to be changed or that
change being suggested is unwise and will thus be
unproductive in meeting the objectives of the school.
• Insecurity: People feel insecure about the uncertainty of
things to happen. Those who are comfortable with the
present are resistant to change .
• Rapidity of change: people resist change anticipating
another change in curriculum soon.
• Lack of knowledge: sometime people resist innovation and
change either they do not know about the innovation at all
or they have little information about it.
• Lack of support: Lack of financial or time support is given to
the effort. A project for which no monies are budgeted is
rarely designed to be implemented.
• Self Interest: People also resist to curriculum change when they feel
that the change may result in a loss in their current position which is
3.2.4. Improving/Increasing Receptivity to Change

• Curriculum activity must be cooperative:

 Creating sense of ownership is achieved by involving people directly and
indirectly with the major aspect of change.
• Considering the feelings, worries and concerns of people:
 Resistance to any new idea is often natural.
 Curriculum leaders should anticipate it, and should prepare procedures for
dealing with it.
• Making the people recognize that innovations are subject to change:
 A new curriculum is presented as a response to a particular time and context.
 Change is a constant, and people need to realize that all programs will be
constantly reviewed to determine if they should be continued.
• Proper timing is a key to increasing peoples’ receptivity to an innovation:
 program addressing the need is likely to meet with success and acceptance.
 3.3. Curriculum Evaluation
 evaluation is the process of determining the significance or worth
of programmes or procedures.
 is the process of collecting data on a programme to determine its
value or worth with the aim of deciding whether to adopt, reject,
or revise the programme.
 is a systematic process of determining whether the curriculum as
designed and implemented has produced or is producing the
intended and desired results.
Purposes of curriculum evaluation:
• to identify the weaknesses and strengths of the program.
• to improve the curriculum development process;
• to determine the effectiveness of the curriculum and the returns
on finance allocated.
 3.3.1. The Purpose of Evaluation

• In general, evaluation can be done for the following purposes:

 Evaluation provides information to improve curricula.
 Evaluation provides useful information to curriculum developers
to clarify the stated objectives.
 Those interested (such as students, parents, educational
systems, employers, universities, development planners, and so
forth) to know how well students perform in their learning.
 It enables to see what has been achieved (impact evaluation).
 It is used to document what has been done and what progress
has been made (process or implementation evaluation).
 It is used to determine cost-benefit accountability for
expenditures.
 It used to share experiences (professional development).
 Used to determine the effectiveness of a program in light of the
attainment pre-set priorities and goals.
 3.3.2. Evaluation Procedures

• The purpose of evaluating total educational program is to find

out its validity to the society it is planned. To do so, it requires
substantial judgment and this substantial judgment could be
achieved if the following, steps are followed as evaluation
procedures.
• Step 1: Identifying the Objective: the process of evaluation
begins with the identification of educational objectives.
• Step 2: Identifying the Situations: This step refers to the
identification of the situations which will give the student the
chance to express the behavior that is implied by the educational
objectives.
• Step 3: Establishing Evaluation Instruments: Here, we identify
particular tests and examine them to see how far they fit into the
type of objectives that are appraised and how far they agree to
the learning situations meant to produce the expected behavior.
 3.3.3. Types of Curriculum Evaluation
Formative evaluation:
 include those activities under taken to improve an intended program.
 data gathered informally during the development stage of the
program to modify it.
 Provides an ongoing data about learning ,methods, materials, etc.
 Uses the process of feed-back and adjustment and thus keeps the
curriculum development process open.
Summative Evaluation
 aims at getting the total picture of the quality of the produced
curriculum.
 data is collected at the end of the implementation of the curriculum
programme using formal data gathering tools.
 enables the concerned body to make decision or draw conclusions
about how well the curriculum has worked.
 a means to certify/promote/ place students.
 3.3.4. Criteria for Curriculum Evaluation

• Establishing evaluation instruments should be based on the

following evaluation criteria.
• Criterion 1- Curricular Structure: Is the curriculum
sufficiently complete? What are the current education
elements?
• Criterion 2 - Curricular Sequence: Is the sequential logic of
the curriculum optimal?
• Criterion 3 - Curricular Element Proportionality: Does
curricular content proportionally reflect the objectives of
medical education, the elements that are required for the
student to develop a general and balanced preparation?
• Criterion 4 - Curricular Integration: Is the curriculum
sufficiently integrated /linked in terms of educational
elements?
 3.3.4. Criteria for Curriculum…
• Criterion 5 - Curricular Balance/Learner Outcomes: Is the
curriculum and its evaluative components (objectives)
balanced in terms of learner outcomes?
• Criterion 6 - General Preparation: Does the curriculum
prepare all students broadly enough? How well does the
curriculum achieve a base of general preparation
compared to specialized preparation?
• Criterion 7 - Curricular Evaluation: Are evaluation
mechanisms systematically in place in order to identify
intended learner outcomes (knowledge, skill, attitude
across the spectrum of expected competencies)?
• Criterion 8 - Faculty Development: Is there sufficient
recruitment, training, evaluation and nurturing of faculty
teachers?
 3.4. Curriculum – Teachers Relationship
 Teachers and curriculum are closely related.
 On one hand, curricular documents provides teachers with
information for:
• planning lessons,
• organizing students’ and their activities,
• directing the instructional work and
• employing different instruments to measure the outcomes and
• making sensible decisions.
 On the other hand, teachers :
• translate curriculum into practice.
• investigate specific curricular weaknesses;
• develop plans for particular curriculum purposes;
• conduct curriculum research and experiments;
• evaluate the existing instructional program;
• play a vital role in the deve’tof a new curriculum or revising the
existing one, etc.
 Unit Four
The Teaching and Learning Process

4.1. The Concept of Teaching

Teaching can be defined as:
 the action of a person imparting knowledge, or skill or giving
instruction (Moore, 2001).
 an attempt to assist students in acquiring or changing some skill,
knowledge, attitude or appreciation (Clark & Starr, 1988).
 the stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement of
learning (Burton, 1963 cited in Aggarwal 1998).
 the activities that are designed and performed to produce change
in student behavior (Clark, 1970 ).
Implications
• the involvement of both the teacher and students.
• an attempt made to help the learner acquire some knowledge,
attitudes, beliefs, skills, convictions, etc.
• Therefore, a broad definition of teaching might be:
 A purposeful, planned and organized action of someone who
assists others to reach their fullest (maximum) potential in all
aspects of their development-physical, social, emotional and
cognitive.
 4.2. The concept of learning
Learning is defined as:-
 A persisting change in human performance or
performance potential . . . (brought) about as a result of
the learner’s interaction with the environment
 a relatively permanent change or modification in
the behaviour of the learner as a result of practice
or experience.
 the results of individual’s interaction in an
environment.
 the process of constructing knowledge, attitudes
and skills with a resultant change in behaviour.
 the ability to be aware of, work with, and change
or modify our patterns of thinking, feeling and
action.
 4.3. Characteristics of Effective Teaching
 Clarity of the teacher’s explanations and directions.
 Establishing a task-oriented classroom climate.
 Making use of a variety of learning activities.
 Establishing and maintaining momentum and pace for the
lesson.
 Encouraging students’ participation and getting all of them
involved.
 Monitoring pupils’ progress and attending quickly to pupils’
needs.
 Delivering a well-structured and well organized lesson.
 Providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback.
 Ensuring coverage of the educational objectives.
 Making good use of questioning technique
 4.4. Characteristics of Effective Learning

It is meaningful to the students.

 Students can use it, connect it to their lives, or
actively participate in it.
 It allows students to move further than
memorization of facts and bits of knowledge.
 It prepares the students to understand and
participate in a complex world.
 It encourage students to investigate, to
understand the world around them, to analyze,
to draw conclusions & to communicate – in
other words, TO THINK.
4.5. The interaction between Teaching and Learning

 There is an on-going interaction between teaching and learning.

 The teacher acts as a facilitator in students learning.
 Teaching is a vital to:
 make learning productive, more focused, relevant and applicable.
• Learning is the goal of teaching. Teaching, therefore, can be
thought of as a process that facilitates learning.
• In this process, the teacher is who will widen, deepen and
contextualize the learning in the process.
• Hence, teaching and learning are closely interlinked.
• Teaching-learning process is a planned interaction between the
teacher and the learner so as to promote behavioural change.
 4.6. What is Active Learning?
 A situation where students are active participants in their own
learning rather than passive receivers of knowledge
 Students engage in activity that forces them to think about
and comment on the information presented.
 Its focus is on generating knowledge through a process of
inquiry, observation, analysis and problem solving.
 It is defined as learning in which the child, by acting on objects
and interacting with people, ideas, and events to constructs
new understanding.
 No one else can have experiences or construct knowledge for
the child.
 It refers to techniques where students do more than simply
listen to a lecture.
 In it Students discover, process, and apply information.
 4.7. Characteristics of Active Learning
• Generally, active learning methodology is an instructional
approach that helps students to learn through thinking and
doing. More specifically, active learning:
 Engages students beyond reading, listening, and note-taking;
 Promotes deep learning, not just acquisition of facts;
 Develops higher order thinking skills (e.g. analysis, synthesis,
evaluation);
 Often involves interaction among students;
 Students to take greater responsibility for their learning;
 Teachers help students to monitor their own learning;
 Helps students build competencies such as problem-solving,
critical thinking, communication as well as content
knowledge.
 4.8. Qualities of an Effective Teacher

 Has excellent subject knowledge or mastery.

 Provides work that is challenging for
students.
 Has a smooth relation with students.
 Manages the class well.
 Plans his/her lessons well.
 Adopts a variety of teaching methods and
media.
 Considers the needs of the different ability
groups within the class
 4.8. Qualities of an Effective Teacher …

Makes good use of a variety of

questioning techniques.
 Is friendly, with a sense of humor.
 Gives feedback within an appropriate
timescale.
 Is confident, open to suggestions and
other viewpoints.
 Remains a student all his/her life.
 Knows his/her world.
 Combines adaptability with courage,
 4.8. Qualities of an Effective Teacher..........

 Good physical health and personal hygiene,

 Emotional stability and self control,
 Flexibility, creativity and resourcefulness
 Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, and
sincerity
 Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience,
and diligence,
 Fairness, impartiality, tolerance and patience,
 Sociability and cooperativeness
 4.9. Responsibilities of the Teacher
Responsibilities are obligations or duties to be performed by an individual in a socially acceptable way.

Acquainting oneself Participate in Directing the

with the rules and curriculum classroom
regulation of the school development instructional
and working activities
accordingly

Participating Participate in
in community curriculum
affairs Teacher development

Using research Leading extra-

finding and curricular
local resources Providing activities
guidance
services
 Unit Five: Principles, Methods and Techniques of Teaching
5.1. Principles of Teaching Methods: Definition, Purpose &
Characteristics

• Principles of teaching are generalized statements that serve as

Me regulations or guides for the instructional activities of the teacher
ani
ng
• investigates the general regularities of teaching and learning.
• elaborates objectives, contents, principles, organizational forms and
Pur methods of instruction.
pos • produces a reliable scientific basis for instructional work of the teacher.
es • contributes to the elaboration of syllabi and educational programmes.
• Universal: applicable and valid in teaching all subjects at all
levels of school system.
• Essential: applicable in all aspects of instructional process.
Characterist • Compulsory: help to attain the instructional objectives
ics effectively and efficiently.
• Socially determined: results of long years of life activities.
 5.2. Major Kinds of Teaching Principles
 There are nine principles of teaching as discussed below:
1. The principle of uniting instruction with the political,
economic and social policy of the country: This
indicates that instruction must be related with the life
of the learners. The curriculum of a country will not be
different from a reflection of the socio-political realities
in the society.
2. The Principle of connecting instruction with social
life: The main purpose of this principle is preparing
students for productive work.
3. The Principle of integrating instructions of different
subjects: The main objectives of school instruction are
to enable the students to use facts of the different
subjects (horizontal relationship) jointly in social life.
 5.2. Major Kinds of Teaching Principles…
4. The Principle of guiding the activities of learners
(the principle of teacher’s leading role and students’
independent work): The leading roles of the teacher
are planning, organizing, guiding students,
encouraging, stimulating, facilitating, which are the
basic for successful learning.
5. Principle of making instruction comprehensive: The
main educational aim of this principle is to make the
instructional process suitable for student’s demands,
knowledge, capacity, abilities, will power etc.
6. The principle of vividness in instruction (the
principle of giving clear ideas in instruction):
Successful learning always depends on the learner’s
clear perception of all important parts of the content.
 5.2. Major Kinds of Teaching Principles…
7. The principle of understanding individual difference in
instruction (the principle of approaching students personality
based upon collective activity): The teacher should know the
cognitive abilities and physical maturity of students.
8. The principle of applicability and durability of the results of
instruction (the principle of stabilizing the results of instruction
permanently): The quality of instruction is measured by its
results and these results must be applicable and durable.
9. The principle of shaping instruction systematically according
to the curriculum: The implementation of this principle requires
the study of the curriculum materials (the syllabus, textbook,
teacher’s guide and instructional aides), the development of
clearly defined objectives in all levels of planning, organization of
the subject matter in line with the students ability, maturation,
interest and background.
5.3. Instructional Methods: Definition, and Categories

Instructional methods are:

• are educational means or ways by which the teacher attempts to bring
about the desired learning.
• “how” of the lesson delivery. The way teachers organize and use
subject matter and teaching materials to meet the intended objectives.
• a means by which the teacher assists the learner to acquire
knowledge, develop skills, form attitudes, values, etc.
• denote the way teachers organize and use subject matter and teaching
materials to meet the intended objectives.

Importance : Instructional methods provide opportunities for:

• both the teacher and students to work on the content so as to achieve
the intended educational objectives
• students’ participation in learning activities
• students’ to apply practically the knowledge and skills acquired
• stimulate students’ interest in learning in an efficient manner
• students’ learning by doing, observation, experimentation and
cooperation;
• students’ stimulation, guidance, direction and encouragement;
• to cooperate with peers and teachers;
•
 5.3.1. Major categories of instructional methods

Instructional
Methods

Student Centered
Teacher Centered discussion, Project,
Lecture, Demonstration, etc role playing, problem
solving, etc
 A. characteristics of teacher-centered
methods
• Some characteristics of the teacher-centered methods
 There is high percentage of academic learning time;
 The teacher engages the students on the task promptly
and keeps them on the activity until its completion;
 The teacher is active in explaining, monitoring and
describing;
 Interaction and socializations among or in between
students is kept to the minimum as the students are
awfully busy with the tasks given by the teacher;
 Mastery learning is highly stressed;
 Use of extrinsic reward-praise, good grade;
 Use punishment-usually hard punishment;
 Use of assessment and fee
 B. Nature and characteristics of learner-centered
teaching methods
• Involve students actively.
• It enhances democratic teacher-students relationships.
• Knowledge is the combined efforts of the teacher and the students.
• Under the guidance of the teacher, the students engage in problem solving, critical thinking, and
Nat inquiry skills.
ure • The learning environment is open, dynamic, trusting, respectful, and promote students’ learning
styles
• Students learn how to learn.
• Takes into account diverse learning needs of students.
• Connecting the lesson with students’ lives.
• Strengthens student motivation.
• Promotes peer communication.
Me • Promotes discovery/active learning.
rit • Increases responsibility for one’s own learning.
• Enhances recognition of interdisciplinary knowledge.
• Promote lifelong learning.

• Requires very high students’ commitment.

De • It is challenging for less experienced teachers.
mer • In those subjects of practical nature, the availability of materials and equipment may limit the
it effective application of the methods.
 Teacher Vs Learner Centered…..
Contrasting ideas Teacher-centered Learner-centered
Approach Traditional approach . Progressive approach.
Assumption knowledgeable expert. Science and art of teaching
Emphasis on the teacher. on the students.
size of material covered, meaningfulness of the material.
Source of teacher. combined efforts of both.
knowledge
Assessment by the teacher alone Students participate.
Assessment product oriented process oriented.
functions
Assessment criteria norm referenced. criterion referenced
Communication one- way communication two-way process
Motivation Extrinsic Intrinsic
 5.4. Major Active Learning
Active learning refers to :
 any teaching methods that engage students in the learning process; to do
meaningful learning activities and think about what they are doing.
 an investment of a significant amount of mental energy and a high level of
psychological involvement in the learning process.
 techniques where students do more than simply listen to a lecture. Students
are doing something including discovering, processing, applying, or problem
solving that promotes analysis, synthesis evaluation of the content.
 the active involvement of the learner on different learning tasks with in and
out of the classroom such as group work, role play and drama, projects
discussion, field visit problem solving etc.
 a social process that emphasizes on the process of collaborating and the
exchanging of ideas, knowledge, experiences, skills, values and attitudes.

 Active learning encompasses all strategies promoting activities that involve

students directly and actively in the learning process itself; in doing things and
thinking about what, why, how, they are doing.
 5.4.1. Types of Active Learning Methods

Pair
Reflection works Pyramiding
Ice breaker or
warmer Crossover
energizer group
Evaluation
of lesson Cooperative

ALM learning

Peer Case
assessment study

Ranking
Self assessment tasks
Story Drama
telling
5.4.1.Types of Active Learning Methods…

problem
solving
etc discovery

Field
trip
ALM Project

Role
playing Discussion
independent
study
5.5. Criteria for Selecting teaching Methods

Objectives
The nature of
Conditions intended
specific subject
(facilities) of the matter content
school and (discipline)
concrete
classroom Availability
situation
Criteria of
instructional
media

Nature of the
Teacher’s Time of the learner
personality (interests, needs,
lesson
abilities, etc.)
Unit Six: Planning Lessons, Organization and
Management of Classrooms
6.1. The Need for Instructional Planning
Meaning
• Instructional planning is a process of putting and
organizing the objectives, contents, methods,
materials, assessment techniques and time into
some sort of order for future use.
 6.2. Benefits of instructional planning to the school administrator

obtain evidence of teacher’s ability to prepare and guided by teaching plan, for
the teacher’s decisions should be reflected in his/her plans.
evaluate how well a teacher can prepare and implement a plan in actual
teaching situations,
use a plan as a guide for substitute when teachers are absent.
serves as evidence to be documented to evaluate teacher’s teaching
performances, etc.
c) Benefits of instructional planning to the students
• provides an opportunity to interact with the material to be learned;
• provides a systematic or structured learning environment
• provides an idea of what they are expected to learn and retain;
• makes students feel confident by what they do and what their teachers do;
• promotes learning for it entails the teacher to take into account the diverse
background, interests, abilities, etc of students while planning;
• helps to attract and maintain students attention and facilitate learning and
satisfaction;
• serves as a communication tool between the teacher and the students.
• keeps the class purposely focused, thereby making efficient use of the available
time.
• Instructional plans are the guides for instructional work of all teachers.
Teachers use these guides to make use of the contents, methods, materials,
time and assessment strategies to achieve the intended instructional
objectives. Plans are not self - achieving. Teachers are planners and
practitioners.
 6.3. Major Criteria that a Quality Plan Should Fit
A. Objectivity: denotes that a lesson plan should be based on the
existing reality of the country;
B. Logical Sequence: implies that contents and activities in a
lesson plan should be arranged in logical order. In other words,
lesson contents should proceed from simple to difficult, from near
to far, from known to unknown, from concrete to abstract, etc.
C. Flexibility: expresses that a lesson plan should be open to make
necessary amendments when unpredictable problems face and
when there is transfer of teachers.
D. Comprehensiveness: a lesson plan should include the major
elements such as objectives, contents, methods, media, time,
activities, evaluation mechanisms, etc.
E. Clarity and Simplicity: an instructional plan should be written in
clear and simple languages.
 6.4. Basic Questions in Instructional Planning

Why to
How to assess teach? Whom to
the change? teach?

Basic
How much What to
to teach? Questions
in Lesson teach?
Planning

When to How to
teach? teach?
Where to
teach?
 6.7. Types of Instructional plan
 There are : Annual lesson Plan; Semester plan; Unit plan; Course
plan; Weekly plan & Periodic (daily) plan
Types of Instructional Objectives
A. General Objectives: these are used in preparing the annual plan.
The used action verbs are: To know, understand, comprehend, devote,
grasp, enjoy, appreciate, have faith in, believe in, admire, develop, be
familiar with, be aware of, acquire, etc.
Example: At the end of this unit, the students will be able to know the
English alphabets.
B. Specific Objectives: these are used in preparing periodic lesson plan.
The used action verbs are : To compare, design, infer, identify,
differentiate, construct, write, debate, define, solve, select, evaluate,
draft, change, list, arrange, practice, locate, match, plan, separate, draw,
measure, express, perform, calculate, explain, etc.
Example: At the end of this lesson, the students will be able to write the
first six English alphabets.
Guidelines for Writing Instructional Objectives: objectives should be
stated in terms of students performance, learning outcome, desired behavior & avoid
more than one objective in one statement.
6.8. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
1. Cognitive Domain
Evaluation
Make qualitative
and quantitative
decision or
judgment using
Synthesis
specific criteria or
rational
Combine elements to form
new entity from the
original one
Analysis
Breaking down materials into its
component parts.
Application
Independently apply the knowledge or skills
learned or use information in new situation

Comprehension
Translate or interpret, summarizes prior learning.
Knowledge
Recall or recognize information, usually in the same way it was
learned.
 Taxonomy....
2. Affective Domain

Characterization
Integrating consistent behaviour
as a naturalized value. The value
is recognized as a part of the
person’s character.
Organizing
Committed to a set of values as
displayed by behaviour

Valuing
Recognizing value and displaying this through
involvement or commitment.

Responding
Exhibiting a reaction or change as a result of exposure to
an attitude, behaviour, or value.

Receiving
Become aware of an attitude, behaviour, or value
 Taxonomy....
3. Psychomotor Domain

Naturalization
Complete one or
more skills with easy
and automatic
Articulation
Combine one or more skills
in sequence in harmony
and consistency
Precision
Reproduce skill with accuracy and
exactness

Manipulation
Perform skill according to instruction
rather than observation

Imitation
Observe skill and tries to repeat it
6.8.1. Implications of the taxonomy of educational objectives to lesson plans

• Objectives serve as the key tool for evaluating the teacher himself/herself and students’
success on a daily basis. In instructional planning:
• Seeking the right balance in the objectives of the three domains is the key for students’
overall personality development.
• General objectives are broad concepts, skills, and attitudes usually used n the yearly
instructional plan (know, understand, recognize, appreciate, etc).
• Specific objectives are specific, observable and measurable and commonly used in the
daily lesson plans (name, define, explain, list, distinguish, identify, describe, mention etc.).
• Both general and specific objectives are used in unit planning.
• As the students have already demonstrated a certain level of proficiency in lower levels
of each domain, keep moving them up to higher level in the taxonomy.
• Consider the age/developmental level of the students when you frame learning
objectives.
• At all levels of planning, clearly indicate the performance, a product, the conditions and
appropriate verbs and criterion of judgement to be used in relation to the plan to be
developed.
 Objectives……..
A well stated instructional objective clearly indicates the performance, a product, the
conditions and appropriate verbs to be used in relation to the plan to be developed.
a) The performance: what students are expected to do, not what the teacher is to do
Example: At the end of the year / Up on completion of the course students will be able to:
b) The product: is what students will produce by their action. It is this product which will be
evaluated to determine whether the objective has been achieved.
Example: At the end of the year students will be able to understand the importance of
instructional planning.
c) The conditions/Time: under which the students perform the intended action.
Example: Up on completion of the course students will be able to:
d) The verbs to be used: in annual : know, understand, recognize, etc. which are open,
broad and general.
 In the daily lesson plan verbs are specific, measurable and observable (name, define,
explain, list, distinguish, etc.).
Example: At the end of the course students will be able to understand the importance of
instructional planning.
 Different Formats of Lesson Planning
1. Annual Lesson Planning
• Annual/Yearly Instructional Plan Format
• Name of the School_______________Total number of school
days in the academic year_______
• Academic Year__________________ Periods allotted to the
subject in the week____________
• Name of the teacher______________ Periods allotted to the
subject in the year ______________
• Subject____________________
• Main
Grade______________________ Remark
Semes Month Week General Contents Teaching Teaching Evalu.
ter Objective and Sub- Methods Materials Techn.
contents
 2. Unit Instructional Plan Format

Name of the school________________________________

Subject__________________________________
Grade___________________________________
Name of the teacher________________________________
Unit title__________________________________
Period allotted____________________________________
General objectives: __________________________________
Specific objectives: __________________________________
Content outline: ____________________________________
Learner’s activities: ____________________________________
Teacher’s activities:_______________________________________
Instructional resources:____________________________________
Assessment strategies: ______________________________________
Teacher’s signature_________________________Date___________________
Department head’s comment_________________Name___________Signature______Date___
Vice Director’s comment_________________ Name______________Signature____Date___
 3. Daily Instructional Plan Format (1)

Name of the school __ No. of students per section __

• Subject__________________________ Date _______________.

• Teacher’s Name ____________ Length of period _____ minutes.

• Grade and section__________________ Topic of the lesson____________
• Specific Objectives: ______________________________________________
________________________________________________

Time Major Teacher’s Students’ Teaching Remark

Contents activity activity materials
5’ Introduction Listening Globe
20’ Presentation Participation Map
10’ Consolidation Asking
5’ Evaluation Answering
 3. Daily Instructional Plan Format (2)

• Subject: ________________ Date of lesson: _____________

• Students: male ____ female____ total ___ Grade and section ______
• Title of lesson__________________________
• Specific Learning Objectives ____________________

Teacher.s activity Time Student activity

Resources
Assessment to be used
Reflections on the lesson
Reflections on assessment
 6.9. Classroom management
Classroom management is :
 refers to the combined attributes such as discipline, instructional efficiency,
and organizational skills.
 a process of organizing and conducting a class so as to make instruction
effective and efficient.
 managing the teaching – learning activities to get maximum students learning.
 an act of a teacher taken as preventive or curative activity to achieve the
intended objectives of instruction.
 the issue of establishing and maintaining order in the classroom. Thus,
effective classroom management requires:
i) Careful planning: helpful to provide students with pleasant and supportive
climate .
ii) Conducting the class: so as to enhance students’ desires and interests to learn
and achieve.
iii) Monitoring: establishing control and avoiding disciplinary disturbances and
promoting effective students’ learning.
• Thus, the essence of classroom management is establishing an
effective co-operative classroom system and successful handling of the
human behavior problems during instructional process. Its major goal
is to enable students self management and control so as to optimize
their learning.
•
 6.10. Approach's to Classroom Management

1. The Assertive Approach: This approach expects

teachers to specify rules of behavior and consequences
of misbehaving or disobeying and communicate them to
the students clearly.
2. The Behavior Modification Approach: The assumption
in this approach is that behavior is shaped by
environment and little attention is given to the causes of
the problem.
3. The Group Managerial Approach: This emphasizes on
the importance of responding immediately to group
behavior among students that may be inappropriate or
undesirable in order to prevent problems rather than
having to deal with problems after they emerge.
 6.11. Classroom Organization

Classroom organization:
 refers to the arrangements of classroom seats, the grouping of students for the different
activities, the preparation of different materials and equipments etc, for instruction.
 is the creation of a conducive classroom environment for instruction and making
learning easier.
 is a deliberate creation of the learning environments by considering the instructional
objectives and the specific activities to be done in the classroom to achieve the desired
end results.
 differ from time to time, lesson-to-lesson situation to situation, methods to be used,
instructional objectives, etc.
 In general it is conscious arrangements of the classroom in its totality to achieve the
intended instructional objectives that can be seen in terms of:
– patterns of arranging participants such as small group or whole class participation.
– the kinds of resources to be used.
– the roles and responsibilities for carrying out immediate actions and events.
– rules of appropriateness.
 6.12. Types of Seating Arrangement
 There are four most popular seating arrangements:
A. Row type of seating arrangement: where the students sit
in rows, facing the teacher and the chalkboard. Usually
learners are arranged in accordance with their height where
the tallest seat at the back and the shortest in the front.
B. Cluster Pattern of seating arrangement: This is
characterized by the formulation of little cluster of students
in different positions in the class. This type of seating
arrangement is very convenient for buzz group discussion.
C. The horse shoe pattern of seating arrangement: A seating
arrangement in which students are arranged in the form of
“U” shape. In here the teacher sits at the center.
D. The Round Table Pattern/ Circular Seating Arrangement:
Unlike the horseshoe, the authority of the teacher is
completely decentralized.
 6.13. Effective Classroom Management
Effective Classroom Management:
 Is a set of skills and an attitude learned through
patience and practice.
 Effective managers have a workable system of rules
and procedures.
 They stop inappropriate behavior sooner.
 They establish classroom with routines and procures
 They consider the task of controlling student behavior.
 They analyze the task at hand, deciding what skills are
necessary for the students.
 Class management, then, involves things such as
routines, beginning a lesson, planning for instruction,
lesson presentation, rapport with students, response to
questions and proper use of the chalkboard.
 6.14. Principles of Class Discipline
• Here are some principles that may help the teacher under
the concept discipline clearly.
Principle 1: the aims of education and class discipline are the
same: to help students become self-directing people.
Principle 2: Discipline should be dynamic, helping students to
channel their energies towards learning goals.
Principle 3: Discipline is inseparable from teaching.
Principle 4: Discipline should change with the learners’ stage
of development and help them move to the next stage.
Principle 5: Behavior is determined by rational demands of
the specific situations.
Principle 6: teaching effectiveness, as perceived by learners,
gives the teacher classroom authority.
6.14. Principles of Class Discipline…
Principle 7: Discipline is the ability to attend to a task.
Principle 8: No matter what the classroom design or how
learners are organized for instruction, the principle for
effective teaching and discipline apply.
Principle 9: By identifying and dealing effectively with the
factors under their control and influence, teachers can, in
most cases, tip the balance in favor of discipline.
Principle 10: principle of redirection: Socialization requires the
redirection of destructive behavior into socially useful
behavior. Principle 11: Principle of agreement: ways of dealing
with misbehavior should be in agreement with developmental
goals.
Principle 12: Basic disciple can be achieved only when basic
needs, such as food and safety, are met.
 6.15. Leadership Styles
• Authoritarian style: These teacher determines school policy
alone and assigns duties without question in prescribed
manner. Hence, students lack the capacity for initiation and
group action; show no interest in their work in the absence of
their teacher; develop hostility and aggression towards other.
• Laissez-faire style: The teacher believes that there should not
be rules and regulations since everyone has an “inborn sense
of responsibility. Hence, students feel insecurity; show
dissatisfaction against their teachers and are cooperative.
• Democratic style: Teacher believes that the staff or students
should be involved in decision making process. Hence, there is
more cooperative atmosphere; high level of efficiency and
habit of independent work; initiative of working effectively in
the absence of their teacher and mutual cooperation and
recognition.
 6.16. Guideline for Effective Classroom
Management
Have a good plan;
 Have good subject mastery;
 Use rewards;
 Apply better methods of teaching;
 Respect professional code of ethics;
 Respect the students;
 Evaluate your students fairly;
 Encourage students participation;
Keep your promise;
Use humor, etc.
 6.17. Causes of Students’ Misbehavior

Misbehaviors / inappropriate behaviors is :

 behavior that do not confirm to norms of acceptable
social conduct.
 an act of a student that violates the established
rules or that disrupts the normal teaching and
learning process.
 causes physical or psychological harm to other
students, violate established rules of order, or are
disruptive of the learning process of other students.
 Misbehavior is an act of a student that violates the
established rules or any act of a student that
disrupts the normal teaching and learning process.
• The major causes of student’s misbehavior might be
related to one or more of the following.
6.17. Major causes of student’s misbehavior…

A. Teacher related
– Poor teaching:
– Failure to set the right task
– Failure to enforce the rules set
B. Student related
– lack of interest in learning & in a particular
subject,
– dislike to teachers,
– attention seeking,
– ignorance of the classroom rules,
– unpleasant peer relations,
– emotional upset, and
– bad physical condition
 6.17. Causes of student’s misbehavior…………

C. Home related
– Unsettled or disruptive family affairs
– broken families,
– Child upbringing style
D. School related
• lack of resources,
• class size,
• conflicting rules
 6.18. Preventive Techniques for Classroom
Misbehavior
The Preventative Techniques Curative Techniques
measures to be taken before taken on the spot or after the
misbehaviors occur in a classroom misbehaviors are observed.
Based on prevention is better than cure. to minimize the disruptive effects of
inappropriate behavior and save time.
Some of the techniques include Some of the techniques include:
a) The provision of freedom: a). Closing- in or proximity physically
b) Sharing responsibilities b) Touch and signal
c) Discipline/ reasonable controls c) Humor
d) The prevision of incentive: d) Ignoring
e) Establishing classroom rules e) Eye- contact
f) Explaining procedures: f) Out of sight techniques
g) Making teaching effective: g) Separating misbehaving students
h) Establishing and maintaining good h) Open discussion
interpersonal relationship i) i) Restructuring
 Unit Seven
7. Trends of Curriculum Development in Ethiopia
7.1. Traditional Education in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia has had its own long and rich educational traditions.
 The educational traditions might be viewed as indigenous and
religious ones.
7.1.1. Indigenous education is :
• essentially a part of life of the society and community oriented .
• has been offered by all ethnic and linguistic groups and remains
an important transmitter of cultural identities from one
generation to the next.
• aims at inculcating in children the attitudes and skills
appropriate for male and female social roles.
• emphasized the duties and privileges derived from cultural
values.
• responds to the concrete problems of local communities.
• used methods such as oral instruction, symbols, stories,
proverbs, singing, imitation, dramatizing, observing, repeating,
memorizing and participation.
 In general, indigenous education has played invaluable roles in
preparing the young generation for their future role in Ethiopian
society.
 7.1.2. Religious Education in Ethiopia
A.The Ethiopian Church Education

 traced it back to the 4th century, when Christianity was

introduced into the country.
• The main purpose was to preserve all aspects of
Christian values and culture.
• aimed to prepare young men for the service of church
such as priests, monks, deacons etc.
• had served as the main sources of civil servants such as
judges, governors, scribes, treasures and general
administrators.
• has four stages or levels. These levels/ stages are:
 The school of reading (”Fidel/Nebab Bet”/
 The school of church Music (“Zema Bet”)
 The school of poetry (“Kene Bet”)
 The school of books (“Metshaf Bet”).
 Stage 1. The School of Reading /”Nebab/ Fidel Bet”/

 aims at enabling the learner master the Geez /Amharic letters,

read different religious texts and serve the church as “deacons”.
 the content of education include the Geez /Amharic alphabet/, and
letters.
• Learning by heart or memorization is a typical method of learning.
Stage 2.The School of Church Music /”Zema Bet”/
 aims at producing persons who are well versed and specialized in
the church music and who can serve the church.
 the content includes religious songs, the arts of church dancing,
drum-beating, etc.
 Rote memorization is the dominant method of learning at this level.
3. The School of Poetry /”Kene Bet”/
• aims at preparing persons who are well specialized in “kene” and
serve the church.
• students are introduced to “Geez” vocabularies, grammar, and
structure of language and critics of the “kene” composition of others.
• Method of learning through discussion and argument become
dominant.
Stage 4: The School of Books /”Metshaf Bet”/

• aimed at producing highly educated religious persons

who are able to teach at higher level of church educat.
• the content includes specialization in one, two, three or
four of the following areas. These are the:
Old Testament, the New Testament, Church Dogma,
Philosophy and Astronomy.
• Dogmatist method is encouraged in which reading and
translating without adding or dropping any thing to it.
• Generally speaking, Ethiopian Orthodox Church
education had a virtual monopoly on education up to
the end of 19th century.
• It had been strongly opposed the introduction of
modern education and scientific thinking of the
learners.
 B. Islamic Education in Ethiopia

1.The Mejilis /Tehaji Quran School: known as the school of reading the Quran.
• aims at enabling the learners master the Arabic letters and read the Quran.
• The contents of education comprise mastering Arabic letters / memorize prayers,
etc.
• Learning by heart or rote memorization is the main method of learning.
2. The Fiqh School
• aimed at familiarizing the students with the basic principles of Muslim religion.
• The contents of education consists of learning about Muslim laws, the belief in
Allah and Quran, prayers, fasting, going to Mecca or Medina and giving alms to the
poor.
3. The Nahwi School: known as the school of Arabic Grammar.
• students learn the Arabic vocabularies, grammar or structure.
• Thus, students can understand what they learn.
4. The Quran Tasfir School: students translate the Quran into vernaculars, comment on
what they have read like their teachers without adding or dropping any idea to it.
• aim to prepare persons who are highly educated and can preach the Muslim religion
on the basis of the Quran.
• Generally speaking, it has also negative influence on modern education and
scientific thinking of the learners.
 7.2. The Development of Modern Education in Ethiopia

7.2.1. The history of Ethiopia education before 20th c.

• Western education was introduced in to Ethiopia
through Portuguese missionaries starting from 16th
c.
• The 19th c marked the coming of many protestants
and catholic missionaries.
• Tewodros II (1855-1868) was highly interested to
introduce western civilization and education.
• Missionaries were welcomed during the regime of
Menilik II and schools began educational work.
• The objectives of the missionaries were religious.
 7.2.2. The Development of Modern Education in Ethiopia During the 20th c

The objective conditions that necessitated modern education in Ethiopia:

1.The formation of centralized government with its capital at Addis Ababa
2. The diplomatic relation established between Ethiopia and western
countries,
3. The construction of Franco-Ethiopian railway, that linked the country
with outside world.
4. The development of modern means of communication such as
telephone and postal services and
5. The arrival of foreign missionaries.
 Thus, modern education was officially commenced in 1908 with the
opening of Menilik II School in Addis Ababa.
 The historical dev’t of modern education can be divided it into six
periods. These were:
1. The Period between 1908 – 1935/French influenced education
2. The Period between 1936 – 1941/Italian influenced education
3. The Period between 1942 – 1950/Britain influenced education
4. The period between 1951-1974/ American influenced education
5. The Period between 1975 – 1991/Socialist oriented education and
6. The Period from 1991- 2021/Ethiopia New education & training
policy.
 1. The Period between 1908 – 1935
/ French influenced education system /

 The first gov’t school Menelik II School was opened in 1908.

 Its existence was justified on purely political grounds.
 the first teachers were from Egypt.
 Menelik II School was resembled a language institute rather than a proper school,
for
French, English, Italian and Arabic were the main subjects taught in this school.
 There was no age limit for admission, but a prior knowledge of Amharic was
needed.
 The second modern government school, Teferi Mekonnen School was opened in
1925.
 It was a French-Oriented school because:
• There were successions of French school directors.
• The teachers were from French and French speaking Lebanon.
• The medium of instruction was mainly French.
• The final examination for those students who completed the elementary school
was from France. For further education the students used to go France.
• The curriculum and text books were imported from France.
• in 1930 the ministry of Education and Fine Arts was established.
• in 1931 the first Girls’ School i.e.; the “Menen” Girls’ School was opened .
• in 1934, a teacher training school was founded in Addis Ababa.

 The period between 1936-1941/Italian occupation period/ was considered

as no education period.
 3. The Period Between 1942-1950/Britain influenced education

In this period:
The ministry of Education and Fine Arts reopened.
The first Post-War school was opened in 1942. Then:
Grant was obtained to construct school from Britain.
Several British teachers come to Ethiopia.
Teaching materials including textbooks and curriculum were
imported from Britain.
The medium of instruction became English.
The London Matriculation or GCE was introduced.
The Ethiopian students were sent to Britain for further
education.
The structure of the educational system was a hybrid derived
from Great Britain, a three tire system 4-4-4 (four years
primary, four years of Junior secondary and four years of
senior secondary education).
• Therefore, the number of elementary, secondary and Teacher
training schools and the number of students attending schools
increased until 1950.
 4. The Period Between 1951-1974/ American influenced education system

• The American began to shape edu. through Long Term Planning Committee in
1951.
• Point Four Program and Agency for Inte Deve. and Field Service Program given.
• Higher education was introduced to Ethiopia with the foundation of the
University College of Addis Ababa in 1951, Jimma and Ambo Agricultural
Colleges.
• In 1952, Alemaya Agriculture College and public health college at Gondar.
• In 1961 these institutions of higher learning together formed the Haile Sellasie I
Univ.
• Grade structure was changed from 4+4+4 to 6+2+4 (6 years primary, 2 years of
Junior secondary and four years of senior secondary education).
• Reform of curriculum at the primary level (1-6) was made.
• Amharic became the medium of instruction at this level.
• For the primary schools textbooks were prepared in Amharic and
• At the primary level of education all expatriate teachers were replaced by
Ethiopian teachers. Thus, this was the first step towards the Ethiopianization of
Education in the country.
• School supervision began. Self-contained classroom was piloted.
• The Education Sector Review (ESR) was officially constituted in October 1971.
• ESR made the rural population the target of educational policy. This dissatisfied
the urban population. ESR failed and the crisis of the education sector
aggravated the strikes until the overthrow of the Imperial system in September
1974 .
 5. The Period Between 1974 – 1991/ Socialist oriented education system

Ethiopia adopted the doctrine of Marxist-Leninism philosophy.

the educational system was restructured and organized along
the ideology of the communist Government.
Thus, the government issued three aims of education. These
aims were:
1. Education for production,
2. Education for socialist consciousness and
3. Education for scientific Research.
This period was noted for the following:
1.The establishment of a teachers education committee to
coordinate the curriculum of the school at various levels.
2. Curriculum development was highly favored to expand socialist
ideology
3. Well known with literacy campaign conducted established in
1979.
4. Attention given to kindergarten education
 Finally, the government was overthrown in May 1991 by Front
(EPRDF).
 6. The Ethiopian New Education and Training Policy (1994- 2021)

Relevance

Key Problems
of Education
Access System before Equity
1991

Quality
 Implementation Strategies
(Based on 5 general and 15 specific objectives)

Educational
support & Curriculum
input
Educational Educational
finance structure
Key
Edu.organ. Strategies
Educational
and man’t measurement
and
Language examination
and Teachers
education
 THE
====END====