英语学术论文写作教程

Unit 2 Introduction
 Overview

A good beginning is half done, so is a research paper.

One is to arouse the readers’ interest, and the other is to
offer adequate information to prepare readers for
understanding the paper and evaluating the worth of the
study. In terms of structure, a well-organized Introduction
presents a funnel shape, or in other words, it begins with
stating general research scope and then narrows down to
the research focus. In order to write an effective
Introduction, Swales & Feak (2012) proposes a widely used
discourse pattern, known as the Create-a-Research-Space
(or CARS) model.
 Overview
In addition to the structure, this unit will also focus on some
basic skills for introduction writing. Firstly, an Introduction may
contain a relevant definition, so you should know how to write
definitions, including short definitions and extended definitions.
Secondly, Citations, which may take different forms, are
indispensable parts as well in the Introduction. You’ll learn how
to cite works correctly. Thirdly, Paraphrasing is a very important
and fundamental skill you should master in academic writing for
you are likely to change the wording and structure of the original
text while retaining the original idea when you cite information
from a source. Besides, four different methods to establish a
niche or to give the reasons for your research are recommended
with some useful words indicating judgmental, contrastive or
negative evaluation.
 Overview

Sometimes, you will report the value of your study. By

using modal auxiliaries (may, can, would, etc.), the
statements about the value would sound more cautious
and acceptable. To establish a smooth flow of ideas in the
Introduction section, you can link sentences by using old-
to-new information pattern, which places old or familiar
information at the beginning of the sentence and new or
unfamiliar information at the end.
 Information Convention

Funnel-shaped Structure

Introduction is organized to move from general

information to specific information. The structure of the
Introduction can be thought of as a funnel shape—the top
presenting the broadest view and the rest narrowing down
to the specific research problem.
 Information Convention

Funnel-shaped Structure

Read the following passage from the Introduction

section of a research paper on soil remediation and
think about how the Introduction presents the funnel-
shaped structure.
 Information Convention

❶With the rapid development of chemical industry,

heavy metals in environment increase rapidly and go
beyond the normal range, which has seriously polluted the
soil. ❷ Such soil contamination leads to deterioration of
environmental quality and does harm to human’s health. ❸
So, it is important to control soil pollution caused by heavy
metals.
 Information Convention

❹ Phytoremediation is considered to be a cheap and

safe repair technique for it uses plants to absorb heavy
metal pollutants in soil and transports metals to the air for
storage. ❺ In the past 20 years, phytoremediation has
drawn much attention. ❻ Much research has been done on
herbs belonging to hyperaccumulator, but the results are
not satisfactory because of small biomass, underdeveloped
root, short growth cycle and other factors. ❼ Woody plants
can overcome the shortcomings of herbs, but the studies
on them are quite few.
 Information Convention

❽ This research investigated six woody plants, aiming at

finding out some species that can be widely used in
phytoremediation to deal with heavy metals in soil. ❾ The
study will provide a reference for soil remediation.
 Information Convention
The following part illustrates the funnel-shaped structure of the Introduction
section you have just read.
 Information Convention

The CARS (Creating-a-Research-Space) Model

• Swales & Feak (2012: 331) proposed the CARS model for
Introduction in academic paper based on extensive studies of
articles across a range of disciplines. They identified the
following moves as common in the Introduction sections of
most research papers.
 Information Convention

The CARS (Creating-a-Research-Space) Model

• Move 1: Establishing a research territory

• by showing that the general research area is important,
central, interesting, problematic, or relevant in some way
(optional)
• by introducing and reviewing items of previous research in the
area (obligatory)
• Move 2: Establishing a niche by indicating a gap in the
previous research or by extending previous knowledge in
some way (obligatory)
 Information Convention
The CARS (Creating-a-Research-Space) Model
• Move 3: Occupying the niche
• by outlining purposes or stating the nature of the present
research (obligatory)
• by listing research questions or hypotheses (probable in some
fields, but rare in others)
• by announcing principal findings (probable in some fields, but
rare in others)
• by stating the value of the present research (probable in some
fields, but rare in others)
• by indicating the structure of the RP (probable in some fields,
but rare in others)
 Task 1

• Read the Introduction section of soil remediation

text (Purakayastha, 2009) again and fill in the table with
details from the text to show the moves indicated by
Swales & Feak (2012).
 Suggested Answer
Moves Sentences Function Main ideas

showing the importance of the importance of controlling

controlling soil pollution soil pollution caused by
Sentences 1-3 caused by heavy metals heavy metals
Establish the
research territory
reviewing previous research previous research on
Sentences 4-5 Phytoremediation

The context in which the unsatisfactory results of

Sentence 6 current research makes much research on herbs
Establish the particularly good sense.
niche
indicating a gap few studies on woody plants
Sentence 7

stating the aim of the research finding out some woody

plants that can be widely
Sentence 8 used in phytoremediation to
deal with heavy metals in
Occupy the niche
soil.

stating the value of this study providing a reference for

Sentence 9
soil remediation.
 Task 2

• Read the following three Introduction sections

from three research papers and answer the questions
that follow.
 Passage 1

Questions:
1. What types of information are included in the Introduction?
Yes or No
Research background
√
Literature review √
Definition ×
Limitation of previous studies
Purpose of this study
Outline of the paper
 Passage 1

Questions:
2. Analyze the Introduction according to the CARS model.
Move 1: Establish the research territory.
Move 1 a
Sentences1-2show the relationship between human behavior
and ecology.
Move 1 b
Sentences 3-10 review previous research in the topic
Sentences 11-12 establish the niche.
 Passage 1

Questions:
2. Analyze the Introduction according to the CARS model.
Move 2: Establish a niche
Sentence 6: The initial study was limited to a small sample.
Sentence 7: The initial study was also limited by gender
imbalance.
Move 3: Occupy the niche.
Move 3 a
Sentence 13-14 states the nature of the present research
Move 3 b
Sentence 15 states the hypotheses of this research
 Passage 1

Questions:
3. Does this structure have a funnel shape? How is the
information organized from general to specific?
Yes.
Passage 1
 Passage 1

Questions:
• 4. What words or expressions in the first three sentences that
help establish the research territory?

Sentence 1: has a large influence

Sentence 2: are a direct result of, may require behavioral
solutions,
Sentence 3: many researchers have investigated
 Passage 1

Questions:
• 5. How many citations are there in this Introduction? What
are the roles and purposes of citations?

Eight citations. The roles and purposes of citations

include : acknowledging the intellectual property rights of
earlier authors, showing respect for previous scholars,
giving your arguments greater authority, helping your
friends and colleagues and showing that you are member
of a particular disciplinary community
 Passage 1

Questions:
• 6. What are the linking words and phrases in this passage?
What are their functions?

Indeed, while, also. Using those words can help to make

the information flow smoothly in the text.
 Passage 1

Questions:
• 7. What’s the predicate in each sentence and what tenses are
used in this Introduction?

has (S1) , are, may require (S2), have investigated (S3) ,

has focused (S4) , has been examined (S5), can be used
(S6) have emerged (S7), are (S8), appear (S9), can bolster
(S10), was limited (S11), was limited (S12) , extends (S13),
was used to (S14), was hypothesized (S15)
In terms of verb tenses, simple present, present perfect
and simple past are used in this Introduction.
 Passage 2

Questions:
1. What types of information are included in the Introduction?
Yes or No
Research background
√
Literature review √
Definition
Limitation of previous studies
Purpose of this study
Outline of the paper
 Passage 2

Questions:
2. Can you Analyze the Introduction according to the CARS model?
Move 1(sentences 1-5): Establishing the research territory.
Move 1 a
Sentences 1-2 show the challenge in design
Move 1 b
Sentences 3-5 review previous research to offer solutions
Move 2 (Sentences 6): Establishing the niche.
Sentence 6: No empirical research has investigated tree
stability in engineered soils.
Move 3 (Sentences 7-9): Occupying the niche.
Sentences 7-9 outline the purposes of the present research
 Passage 2

Questions:
3. Does this structure have a funnel shape? How is the
information organized from general to specific?
Yes.
 Passage 2

Questions:
• 4. What words or expressions in the first three sentences that
help establish the research territory?

Sentence 1: ……is a significant challenge…

Sentence 2: ……is desirable from both an ecological and
architectural standpoint
Sentence 3: ……many researchers and engineers…….
 Passage 2

Questions:
• 5. How many citations are there in this Introduction?

Two citations.
 Passage 2

Questions:
• 6. What are the linking words and phrases in this passage?

But, although.
 Passage 2

Questions:
• 7. What’s the predicate in each sentence and what tenses are
used in this Introduction?

is (S1) , is, are (S2), have developed (S3) , are (S4) , are
composed of (S5), is (S6) was (S7), was (S8), was (S9)
In terms of verb tenses, simple present, present perfect
and simple past are used in this Introduction.
 Passage 3

Questions:
1. What types of information are included in the Introduction?
Yes or No
Research background
√
Literature review There is an independent part of Literature
Background in the paper
Definition ×
Limitation of previous studies
Purpose of this study
Outline of the paper
 Passage 3

Questions:
2. Can you Analyze the Introduction according to the CARS model?

In fact, this Introduction does not fit exactly in CARS model

because there is an independent section of literature review.
But some typical elements in CARS can be found in this part,
for example, background in the first two sentences, the
purpose of this paper in sentence 7, the structure of the paper
through sentences 8-11, the value of the research in sentence
12.
 Passage 3

Questions:
3. Does this structure have a funnel shape? How is the
information organized from general to specific?

No, the structure does not present a typical funnel shape.

 Passage 1

Questions:
• 4. What words or expressions in the first two sentences that
help establish the research territory?

Sentence 1: …were assigned as urban regeneration areas

Sentence 2: …an important mission
 Passage 1

Questions:
• 5. How many citations are there in this Introduction?
No citations.
 Passage 1

Questions:
• 6. What are the linking words and phrases in this passage?
What are their functions?

However, as a result of, in this respect, also

 Passage 1

Questions:
• 7. What’s the predicate in each sentence and what tenses are
used in this Introduction?

Were assigned (S1) , was assigned (S2), considered(S3) ,

gained (S4) , was applied(S5), has (S6) highlights(S7), is
highlighted (S8), underlines (S9), examines (S10), reveals
(S11), intend(S12)
 Task 3

• Analyze the Introduction sections of 2-3 research

papers in your research field in terms of the seven
questions in Task Two.
 Task 4

• The following sentences are taken from the

Introduction section of a paper on the role of
computers in education and their order is
disorganized. Reconstruct these sentences into a
logical order of a funnel shaped pattern, numbering
them from 1 to 7.
 2
• _____ A. Many schools have purchased and are purchasing
microcomputers for infusion into their directed learning programs.
• _____
5 B. Although much work has been done to date, more studies need
to be conducted to ascertain the effects of microcomputer-assisted
instruction in teaching various subjects in a variety of learning situations.
1
• _____ C. During the past 40 years, the U.S. has experienced the
integration of the computer into society.
3
• _____ D. Most individuals seem to agree that the microcomputer will
continue to hold an important role in education (Gubser, 1980;
Hinton,1981; Foster,1982).
• _____
7 E. This topic was identified as being of importance to teachers in
providing them the necessary background to teach lessons in farm
records.
6
• _____ F. The purpose of this study was to ascertain the effect of using
microcomputer-assisted instruction as compared to a lecture-discussion
technique in teaching principles and methods of cost recovery and
investment credit on agricultural assets to graduate students in
agricultural education.
• _____
4 G. Schmidt (1982) identified three types of microcomputer use in
classrooms: the object of a course, a support tool, and a means of
providing instruction.
 Task 5

• The following are the titles of some research

papers and their opening sentences. Skim the titles
and the sentences. Match the titles in the left
column with these sentences in the right column.
Titles Opening sentences
a) Information service platform of 1. Successfully integrating trees and grey
forest pest forecast based on infrastructure is a significant challenge for creating
WebGIS high-value urban forests.
b) Evaluating rain gardens as a 2. Plasticity in plants is a very common response to
method to reduce the impact of environments (Schlichting 1986), where light is a
sewer overflows in sources of fundamental heterogeneous environmental factor.
drinking water 3. Combined sewer overflow (CSO) waters are a
c) Stability of landscape trees in mixture of untreated sanitary waters and
engineered and conventional storm waters that are contaminated.
urban soil mixes 4. Geographical Information System (GIS) is a
d) Plasticity of reproductive traits collection of computer hardware, software, and
responding to variation in light geographic data for capturing, managing, analyzing
availability at the rosette stage of and displaying all forms of geographically
the first year in a strict biennial, referenced information.
Pedicularis torta, from a field on
the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau, China
 Writing a Definition

An Introduction may begin with a definition. In

fact, definitions are common in the Introduction of an
academic paper. You offer a definition of a term or
concept if the term or concept is perhaps unfamiliar to
your readers or if you need to display your
understanding of them in your paper.
 Short Definitions

Short definitions give information about a term in a

word or phrase and are placed within either
parentheses or commas in a sentence. Some of them
are signaled by such devices as i.e, or phrases such as
known as, defined as.
 Task 6
• Identify and underline the definitional device markers
in each short definition.
• Cultural assimilation, or the melting-pot theory, has been a strong
theme throughout the history of the United States.
• The uncertainty associated with the energy obtained from other
types of non-utility generators, i.e., thermal and hydro, is relatively
small compared to that associated with wind.
• The disposition towards ethnocentrism (centeredness on one’s
own group) might well be the characteristic that most directly
relates to intercultural communication.
 Task 6
• Because the Incas preserved their mummies, it seems that
they never felt the urge to represent their ancestors as
gods in their art. Thus, the huacas—the mummies or the
stones representing them—were not dedicated to
particular gods.
• Based on the analysis on the whole process of VR(a
scientific method and technology created by human beings
to understand, simulate, and better adapt and use the
nature), this paper presents different categories of VR
problems.
• Pfam, known as a comprehensive database of protein
families, contains 7973 families in the current release.
 Sentence Definitions

• Please study the structure of sentence definitions.

is by which
 Sentence Definitions

• Please study the structure of sentence definitions.

Term Be Category word Which-clause Distinguishing
detail

A solar cell is a device which converts the

energy of
sunlight into
electric energy.

Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants

turn carbon
dioxide and
water into food
using energy
obtained from
light from the
sun
 Task 7

• Compare the two definitions in each set and

decide which one is better.
• A) Soil erosion is a process during which the surface of
the earth erodes.
• B) Soil erosion is a process during which the surface of
the earth is degraded by the effects of the
atmosphere, weather, and human activity. √
 Task 7

• Compare the two definitions in each set and

decide which one is better.
• A) Crawler is a person who tries to get one’s favor by
crawling to them.
• B) Crawler is a person who tries to get one’s favor by
doing what will please them.
 Task 7

• Compare the two definitions in each set and

decide which one is better.
• A) Territorial animals are those which occupy and
defend their own territory.
• B) Territorial animals are those which occupy and
defend an area believed to be their own.
 Task 7

• In each set, the second definition is better. In the

definition A) of the first set, the word “erodes,” derived from
“erosion,” cannot help readers to understand the meaning of
soil erosion. The same problem occurs in the definition A) of
the next two sets. This type of definition is called circular
definition. We should avoid writing such definitions.
 Task 8

• Complete the following definitions by inserting a

suitable category word.
instrument which is
• 1.A barometer is a scientific __________
designed to measure atmospheric pressure.
organs
• 2.Kidneys are __________ that separate waste fluid from
the blood.
organization
• 3.A multinational company is a business __________
that operates in many countries.
material
• 4.Reinforced concrete is a building __________
consisting of cement, sand and steel rods.
 Task 8

• Complete the following definitions by inserting a

suitable category word.
behavior
• 5.Bullying is a pattern of anti-social __________ found in
many schools.
process
• 6.Recycling is a __________ in which materials are used
again.
period
• 7.A recession is a __________ of reduced economic
activity.
grains
• 8.Cereals are __________ widely grown for food
production.
 Task 9

• Use the sentence structure you’ve learned to write a

sentence definition for the following nouns.
• 1. thermometer
• 2. nylon
• 3. compass
• 4. mobile phone
• 5. infection
 Task 9
• Suggested answers
• 1. A thermometer is an instrument with which
temperature can be measured.
• 2. Nylon is a very strong artificial material which is
used for making clothes, rope, brushes, etc.
• 3. A compass is an instrument which can helps to find
direction with a needle always pointing to the north.
• 4. A mobile phone is a telephone that you can carry
with you and use anywhere.
• 5. An infection is an illness that is caused by bacteria
or a virus and that affects one part of the body.
 Extended Definitions

• In academic writing, it may be important to

extend the definition to show your knowledge of a
concept fully. An extended definition often begins
with a general definition in one sentence and then
provides additional details specifying types, history,
examples, components, or applications.
 Task 10

• Read the following extended definitions and specify

their functions.
A thermometer is an instrument which measures
temperature. It consists of two important elements: a
temperature sensor in which some physical change
occurs with temperature, and some means of converting
this physical change into a numerical value.

Components
 Task 10
• Read the following extended definitions and specify
their functions.
• A thermometer is an instrument which measures temperature.
Different thermometers operate by various principles. A gas
thermometer functions by Charles Law which states that when
the temperature of a gas increases, so does the volume. A
Mercury thermometer is a glass tube with mercury inside. The
change of temperature will cause the mercury to rise or drop
inside the tube. An infrared thermometer measures the thermal
radiation emitted by an object, allowing non-contact
measurement of temperature.
Types
 Task 10

• Read the following extended definitions and specify

their functions.
• A thermometer is an instrument which measures temperature.
It is widely used in industry to control and regulate processes,
in the study of weather, in medicine, and in scientific research.
For instance, a doctor uses a thermometer to measure a
patient’s body temperature; aircrafts use thermometers to
determine if atmospheric icing conditions exist along their
flight path.

Applications
 Task 10

• Read the following extended definitions and specify

their functions.
• A thermometer is an instrument which measures
temperature. In 1593, Galileo invented the first
thermometer. In 1612, Santorio became the first
inventor to put a numerical scale on his thermometer,
but the instrument was not very accurate. In 1714,
the first modern thermometer, the mercury
thermometer was invented by Daniel Fahrenheit.
History
 Task 11

• Write an extended definition of an important term

or concept in your research field.
 Citations in Introduction

• The Introduction section may contain citations

acknowledging the intellectual property rights of
earlier authors and giving your arguments greater
authority and credibility. When you cite the works of
other authors, you may choose information
prominent citations or writer prominent citations. In
the following, we will introduce the two citation
patterns with examples.
 Citations in Introduction

• Type one: Information Prominent Citation

• (1) Writer + publication year
• Plasticity in plants is a very common response to
environments (Schlichting 1986).
• (2) Reference number
• Fast charging level provides power to fully charge an
EV battery in 20-30 minutes. [3]
 Citations in Introduction

• Type Two: Writer Prominent Citation

• (1) Writer’s name + publication year
• Harper (2008) found that the relationships between
some reproductive traits and plant size varied with
different environmental conditions.
• (2) Writer’s name + reference number
• Gomez and Scher [4] indicate that logical thinking
and correct spelling are integral in solving crossword
puzzles.
 Verb Tenses in Citations

• (1) Referring to single studies: simple past

• Example: Rutherford (1990) found that pine wilt
disease became more common in the cooler regions
of Japan, but damage to the forest was less severe
than other diseases.
 Verb Tenses in Citations

• (2) Referring to areas of inquiry: present perfect

• Example: Such preferential movement of water and
dissolved constituents has been observed in a large
number of studies (Germann & Beven, 1981; Beven
& Bermann, 1982; Ghodrati & Jury, 1990; Van
Genuchten & Rolston, 1990; Gish& Shirmohammadi,
1991).
 Verb Tenses in Citations

• (3) Referring to state of current knowledge:

simple present
• Example: Plasticity in plants is a very common response
to environments (Schlichting 1986).
 Task 12
• Read the text and answer questions that follow.
• The bulb is a sink organ where starch is the dominant
reserve energy source for plant growth. Starch is degraded into
sucrose which can be transported and utilized for the initial
growth (Miller, 1992). Several studies were reported regarding
lily bulbs. Zheng et al. (2012) tested the hypothesis that the
plant growth retardants chlorocholine chloride and
paclobutrazol could impove carbohydrate accumulation in lily
bulbs by enhancing photosynthetic capacity and changing
endogenous hormonesl Kim et al. (2003) studied the effect of
bulb scale removal before planting on growth and flowering of
lily. Treder (2003) also studied the effect of supplemental
lighting on partitioning of carbodydrates in bulbs of oriental lily.
 Task 12
• Little attention has been drawn to the physiological role of the
main bulb and the vital role of its reserved carbondydrate on
growth and development. (Addai et al., 2011a, b; Miller, 1992)
• Questions
• 1. What type of citation do the first and second quotations
belong to?
• The first quotation belongs to information prominent citation
and the second belongs to writer prominent citation.
 Task 12
• Questions
• 2. What is the predicate in each citation? What rules do the
verb tenses follow?
• Is degraded, tested, studied, studied, has been drawn
• The rules of verb tenses:
• (1) Referring to single studies: simple past
• (2) Referring to areas of inquiry: present perfect
• (3) Referring to state of current knowledge: simple present
 Task 13
• Fill in the blanks with correct tense for each verb.
created
• Giuseppe Airoldi _______________ (create) the first
crossword puzzle on 14 Sept. 1890 while Arthur
Wynne published the first “modern” puzzle on 21 Dec.
1913 (Wikipedia, 2009). The popular pastime of
completing crossword puzzles is becoming a
pedagogical activity now.
 Task 13
• Some of the disciplines that have employed crossword
include
puzzles _______________ (include) information systems
(Gomez & Scher, 2005), human development (Weisskirch,
2006), education (Bonwell & Sutherland, 1996),
psychology (Crossman & Crossman,1983; Hambrick et al.,
1999), human physiology (Bailey et al., 1999), sociology
(Childers, 1996), geography (McKenny,1970), and biology
(Franklin et al., 2003). Bonwell & Sutherland (1996)
promoted
_______________ (promote) puzzles as an active-learning
strategy. Weisskirch (2006) felt that crossword puzzles
provide
_______________ (provide) an appealing way for exam
review.
 Task 13
• The use of “games” in pedagogical settings is not
uncommon. Sulzman (2004) _______________
utilized
(utilize) variations of games such as Jeopardy and
Pictionary in introductory soil science recitation
employed
sections. Davis (1997) _______________ (employ) a
Chutes and Ladders approach in teaching nitrogen
transformations to cooperative extension audiences.
 Paraphrasing

• Paraphrasing is a very important and fundamental skill

in academic writing. When you cite information from a
source, you usually change the wording and structure of
the original text while retaining the original idea. Good
paraphrasing can help the writer avoid plagiarizing.
 Paraphrasing

• Replacing words with synonyms, changing word order

and changing sentence structure are the most common
strategies used to paraphrase a sentence. In some cases,
to paraphrase a sentence, you’d better start by
identifying the important information in the sentence,
determining relationships between points, and then
think about how to establish relationships and replace
the original words with possible synonyms.
 Paraphrasing

• Examine and paraphrase the following sentence:

• A number of studies have indicated that changes in the availability
of light may result in variation in growth-related traits.
• Important information:
• Changes in the light availability may affect some growth-related
traits.
• Many studies has showed this finding.
• Establish relationships
• cause and effect
 Paraphrasing

• Linking words that can connect the points

• due to, because, as a result, result in, result from...
• Possible synonyms
• indicate: demonstrate
• a number of: many
• A paraphrased version:
• The finding that the change of growth-related traits would result
from differences in light availability was demonstrated in many
studies.
 Task 14
• Please paraphrase the following sentences.
• 1.Some people believe that visitors to other countries should
follow local customs and behavior.
• 2.There is general agreement among European leaders that if
European countries would unify, there would be a more stable
economy.
• 3.Teaching methods are constantly being revised, but there is no
clear evidence of a need to radically change them.
• 4.This thriving area for food production has shrunk due to the
relative scarcity of labor and competition from imports.
 Task 14
• Suggested Answers.
• 1.Some people think that local rules and behavior should be
followed by tourists when they go to other countries.
• 2.European leaders generally agree that total unification of
European countries would strengthen the economic stability.
• 3.Although revisions of the teaching approaches are continuing,
no strong evidence is found for the necessity of a complete
revolution.
• 4.The relative shortage of labor and fierce import competition
has brought depression to this area which used to be prosperous
for food production.
 Establishing a Niche

• According to the CARS model (Swales & Feak, 2012),

Move 2 is to establish a niche, or to give the reasons for
the present research. Usually Move 2 is short, often
consisting of one or two sentences. There’re four
different methods to establish a niche.
 Establishing a Niche

• Counter-claiming (Something is wrong)

• Example: However, this view has been challenged by recent
works that suggest these thick gravels may be the result of
climate change.
• Indicating a gap in previous research (Something is
missing)
• Example: However, there is no empirical research, to our
knowledge, that has investigated tree stability in
engineered soils.

•
 Establishing a Niche

• Raising a question about previous research (something

is unclear)
• Example: The question remains as to whether depth
perception differs between hemispheric laterality and
genders, and whether it is affected by eye dominance.
• Continuing a tradition (adding something)
• Example: Hence, additional studies of…. are needed.
 Establishing a Niche

• A shift from Move 1 to Move 2 would suggest a transition from

general background to critical literature review. Authors may use
some “negative” indicating words and expressions to establish a
niche.
• Connectors:
• however, but, despite, although, yet, nevertheless…
• Verbs:
• lack, fail, ignore, neglect, limit, misinterpret, hinder, question…
• Adjective:
• little, few, unreliable, unsatisfactory, inefficient, scarce, limited,
uncertain, unclear, controversial, unconvincing, questionable…
•
 Task 15
• The following three sentences are taken from the Introduction
sections of three different academic papers and they all belong
to Move 2. Please put them back in their original places. Then
answer the questions that follow.
• A. However, few studies have been conducted to examine whether
environmental changes, such as increasing in anthropogenic N input,
will result in a decoupling of plants and soil microorganisms.
• B. However, most of the studies are basically depended on the
traditional forest inventory data and manual procedures.
• C. While both Agreeableness and Openness fit well into theoretical
models of pro-environmental attitudes, the initial study demonstrating
their predictive utility was limited to a relatively small sample of
undergraduate students (N 1/4 106).
 Task 15
• Forest ecosystems provide wood products and a wide range of
valuable services, including soil/water protection, biodiversity
conservation, and carbon sequestration (Costanza et al. 1997; Ouyang
et al. 1999). Due to the fast growing of human population, forests have
been excessively harvested, the quality of the remaining forests has
been degraded and ecological functions of the forests have been
weakened. Geographic information systems (GIS) are useful tools for
land classifications (Shao et al. 1996; Silviro et al. 2005). In the process
of classified forest management, classifying forest is an essential step.
The methods of classifying forest have been discussed by several
researches (Wang et al. 2000; Hong and Cai 2002; Mark et al. 2004).
B
________________________________________________________.
The paper introduces a GIS approach to classify and map forest
management category and compares the map product with the existing
product developed with the traditional forest inventory data and
manual procedures.
 Task 15
• Questions
• 1. How is the niche established?
• Using the method of indicating a gap in previous
research to establish the niche

•
 Task 15
• Questions
• 2. Which words or expressions indicate that Move 1 has
ended and Move 2 has started?
• “However” is the typical word to signal the shift from
Move 1 to Move 2

•
 Task 15
•For better or for worse, human behavior has a large influence on the
global ecology. Many of the environmental challenges facing us
today are a direct result of human actions, and as such may require
behavioral solutions (Oskamp, 2000; Saunders, 2003).
C
______________________________________________________.
The initial study was also limited by the imbalance of male and
female participants, making it difficult to examine the importance of
gender as a moderating variable. The current study extends this
previous research by examining the personality predictors of
environmental concern in a much larger community sample of
German adults. Additionally, structural equation modeling was used
to provide error-reduced estimates of the true relationships between
the variables of interest.
 Task 15
• Questions
• 1. How is the niche established?
• Using the method of extending a to establish the niche
 Task 15
• Questions
• 2. Which words or expressions indicate that Move 1 has
ended and Move 2 has started?
• “While” and “limited” are the typical word to signal the
shift from Move 1 to Move 2
 Task 15
• Plants and soil microbes are critical to maintain the functions of
natural terrestrial ecosystems (Reynolds et al., 2003; Wardle et al.,
2004; Wagg et al., 2011). Plant productivity and soil microbial
activities often tightly coupled, especially in nutrient poor
ecosystems (Bardgett et al., 1999; Paterson, 2003; van der Heijden
et al., 2008). The relationships between terrestrial plants and soil
microorganisms are crucial for maintaining the functions and
stability of the terrestrial ecosystems.
 Task 15
• If the coupling between plants and soil microbes is disrupted, it could
have unexpected impacts on the ecological goods and services.
A
__________________________________________________________
A field manipulative experiment with eight N addition levels (0, 1, 2, 4,
8, 16, 32, 64 g N m_2 y_1) has been conducted in a temperate steppe in
northern China since 2003, which is experiencing increasing N
deposition because of nearby intensive agriculture and industry (Liu et
al., 2011). We measured plant and microbial growth from 2005 to 2007,
and aimed to address two hypotheses: 1) plant growth and soil
microbial activities will show differential responses to N addition; 2) the
coupling between plant growth and soil microbial activities will be
disrupted with the increase in N input.
 Task 15
• Questions
• 1. How is the niche established in these Introductions
previously?
• Using the method of indicating a gap in previous
research to establish the niche
 Task 15
• Questions
• 2. Which words or expressions indicate that Move 1 has
ended and Move 2 has started?
• “However” and “few” are the typical word to signal the
shift from Move 1 to Move 2
 Occupying the Niche

• In Move 3, the final stage in a typical research paper

of the Introduction, the author proceeds to occupy the
niche that has been established in Move 2. The following
tasks will focus on the steps in this part.
 Purposes or Nature of the Research

• This step is obligatory in writing Introduction by

outlining purposes or stating the method of the present
research.
 Task 16
• Decide whether the following sentences are statements of the
research purpose or the research method. The first two have
been done for you.
• ( P ) 1. The aim of this article is to understand the different role
played by VC and PE investors in supporting the investment
activity of their portfolio companies, which are mostly low or
medium technology firms.
• ( N ) 2. In the current experiment, structural equation modeling
was used to provide error-reduced estimates of the true
relationship between the variables of interest.
 Task 16

• (N) 3. In this study, we presented a novel method to

experimentally determine the VOS of the field sensors by using
frozen soil samples under laboratory condition.
• (P ) 4. We aimed at determining an optimum WT that would
enable proper growth of grass with less carbon dioxide emission.
• (P) 5. The goal of the present study was to provide an
environmental evaluation of a range of waste management
options for dealing with garden waste generated in the
Municipality of Aarhus (Denmark).
 Task 16
• (N ) 6. In the present study, we carried out a shading experiment
to explore whether variation in the avail-ability of light during the
rosette stage of the first year affects reproductive traits and plant
size at maturity.
• (P ) 7.The objective of this research was to develop a protocol
suitable for somatic embryogenesis of cotton recalcitrant
genotypes.
• (N ) 8.This paper proposes a new approach for optimal placing and
sizing of EV charging stations.
 Verb Tenses Used in Purpose

• In Introduction, both simple present and simple past tenses

may be employed to indicate the research purpose. The
differences between them are shown in the following:
• (1) The subject is about the type of text (paper, article, etc.):
simple present
• Example: This paper proposes a new approach for optimal placing
and sizing of EV charging stations.
• (2) The subject is about the type of investigation (experiment,
study, etc.): simple past
• Example: The goal of the present study was to provide an
environmental evaluation of a range of waste management
options for dealing with garden waste generated in the
Municipality of Aarhus (Denmark).
 Task 17
• Complete the following sentences and pay attention to the
tenses of the verbs.
is
• The purpose of this article __________ (be) to give the most
direct answer possible to the direct question of how long
advertising affects sales.
was made (make) to determine whether or
• The present study __________
not generic differences in germination at low temperature exist in
pepper species.
was
• The research reported in this paper _________ (be) an attempt
to develop an alternative analytical approach to machinery
selection problems.
 Task 17
present (present) a conceptual framework
• In this paper we _________
for linking production and investment decisions to the financing
decision via a risk constraint.
describes (describe) the results of aerial survey and
• This paper ________
interviews conducted in Honduras to determine the distribution
and status of manatees in that country.
 Research Questions

• Research questions may be inferred from the statements in Move 3a.

• Example 1:
• “The article deals with the economic impact of increasing strictly protected
forest areas up to 10% from the total forest area in Estonia.”
• The research question: What is the economic impact of increasing strictly
protected forest areas up to 10% from the total forest area in Estonia?
• Example 2:
• “The purpose of this modeling study was to find out if the observed indication
for preferential flow of the field investigations could be quantitatively better
described by using two-domain approach.”
• The research question: Can the observed indication for preferential flow of the
field investigations quantitatively be better described by using two-domain
approach?
 Task 18
• Identify the research questions from the following statements.
• 1.The objective of the research was to determine how the
structural variations in soil microbial communities are linked to
functioning in driving SOC transformation.
• How are the structural variations in soil microbial communities
linked to functioning in driving SOC transformation?
• 2.This paper investigates whether one’s occupational status
influences the importance one attributes to maintaining overall
appearance.
• Does one’s occupational status influence the importance one
attributes to maintaining overall appearance?
 Task 18
• 3.The aim of the study was to find out whether the strength and
location of the coupling are comparable.
• Are the strength and location of the coupling comparable?
• 4. The research dealt with the cold tolerance characteristic of H.
cunea population in the northeast of China.
• How does H.cunea (a harmful insect) population in the northeast of
China survive in a cold region?
• 5. The study was carried out in order to understand how Fengshui
site section influences the interactions of Chinese and their
natural world.
• How does Fengshui site selection influence the interactions of Chinese
and their natural world?
 Research Value

• The value of a study can be practical benefits resulting

from applying the findings of the study or the theoretical
importance of the work in advancing the state of
knowledge. When reporting value of your study, you
should not make it sound too definite. By using modal
auxiliaries (may, can, would, etc.), the statements sound
more cautious and acceptable.
 Task 19
• All the sentences below are taken from Move 3. Examine the
modal auxiliaries in these sentences. On the scale of certainty,
put the modal auxiliaries in an order from the most certain to
the most tentative.
• This methodology might be an adequate and useful tool to
develop sampling plans for food composition analysis.
• This study would be a useful first step in the development of
biodegradation techniques.
• This categorization may contribute to understanding the
landscape architecture design process and its communication
and teaching.
• This new method should simplify the calculating procedure.
• With this method, the students will develop the communicative
skills effectively and express themselves creatively.
 Task 19

Certain will
would

should
Tentative may
might
 Task 20
• Add modal auxiliaries (may, can, would, etc.) to make the
following sentences more cautious and acceptable.
• It provides theoretical and practical significance for not only the
dynamic monitoring and prediction for H. cunea (a harmful
insect), but also effective prevention and control for it.
• It can provide theoretical and practical significance for not only
the dynamic monitoring and prediction for H.cunea (a harmful
insect), but also effective prevention and control for it.
• We anticipate that the outcome of the study helps with gaining
better mechanistic understanding on the microbial regulation of
SOC dynamics.
• We anticipate that the outcome of the study would help with
gaining better mechanistic understanding on the microbial
regulation of SOC dynamics.
 Outline of the Paper

• This step is probable in some fields, but rare in others.

The main purpose is to illustrate the structure of the
research paper.
 Task 21
• Improve the following textual outline which lacks a good variety
of sentence structures.
• The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, a
literature review of ORR mechanisms and dispatching rules for
assembly job shop scheduling will be given. In Section 3, a
description of the simulation settings will be given, such as the
shop floor configuration, the assembly job information and
performance measures of the job shop scheduling problem. In
Section 4, the ORR mechanisms and dispatching rules used in the
job shop scheduling problem will be described. In Section 5, the
design of experiments will be given. In Section 6, analysis of
experiment results will be given. In Section 7, conclusion and
future research directions will be given.
 Task 21
• Suggested Answer
• The rest of the paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, a
literature review of ORR mechanisms and dispatching rules for
assembly job shop scheduling will be given. Section 3 deals with a
description of the simulation settings, such as the shop floor
configuration, the assembly job information and performance
measures of the job shop scheduling problem. In Section 4, we
will describe the ORR mechanisms and dispatching rules used in
the job shop scheduling problem. Then, Section 5 will present the
design of experiments. Analysis of experiment results will be
provided in Section 6. Finally, Section 7 offers conclusion and
future research directions.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

To establish a smooth flow of ideas in the Introduction

section, you can link sentences by using old-to-new
information pattern, which places old or familiar
information at the beginning of the sentence and new or
unfamiliar information at the end. Examine the old-to-new
information pattern of the following paragraph.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

Tourists are increasingly searching for forms of travel

that provide “alternative” experiences to the mainstream.
Two examples of this phenomenon are backpacker and
volunteer tourism. As it rises in popularity, backpacking is
beginning to attract some dissatisfaction with its growing
resemblance to mass travel, whereas volunteer tourism, in
contrast, can be viewed as an increasingly sustainable form
of travel.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

• Four ways to indicate old information:

• Repeat the words
• Example: Ciuseppe Airoldi created the first crossword
puzzle on 14 Sept. 1890 while Arthur Wynne published
the first “modern” puzzle on 21 Dec. 1913 (Wikipedia,
2009). The popular past time of completing crossword
puzzles is now becoming a pedagogical activity.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

• Four ways to indicate old information:

• Repeat the words
• Example: Ciuseppe Airoldi created the first crossword
puzzle on 14 Sept. 1890 while Arthur Wynne published
the first “modern” puzzle on 21 Dec. 1913 (Wikipedia,
2009). The popular past time of completing crossword
puzzles is now becoming a pedagogical activity.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

• Four ways to indicate old information:

• Use the synonyms of the words
• Example: For better or for worse, human behavior has a
large influence on the global ecology. Many of the
environmental challenges facing us today are a direct
result of human actions, and as such may require
behavioral solutions (Oskamp, 2000; Saunders, 003).
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

• Four ways to indicate old information:

• This/these + summary noun
• Example: Though Zeytinburnu is an advantageous
settlement by its central location within Istanbul
metropolitan area and closeness to the old central
business district, today it encounters a dense but poor
quality urban growth. This situation is mainly due to the
irregular urbanization process which aroused from the
fact that Zeytinburnu is the first focus of illegal
settlement in Istanbul which hosts most of the
population who migrated to the city.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

• Four ways to indicate old information:

• Use pronouns or demonstrative pronouns
• Example: The industry now covers an area of 120
hectares. It has a high productivity with about 200
companies.
 Information Flow: Old-to-New Pattern

• Four ways to indicate old information:

• Repeat the words
• Example: Ciuseppe Airoldi created the first crossword
puzzle on 14 Sept. 1890 while Arthur Wynne published
the first “modern” puzzle on 21 Dec. 1913 (Wikipedia,
2009). The popular past time of completing crossword
puzzles is now becoming a pedagogical activity.
 Task 22
•Choose a word from the list to complete each sentence.
assertion zone method gap species

Much research to date has focused upon the separate motivations

for both volunteer and backpacker tourist experiences, without
considering the potential similarities and overlap of motivations that
may exist between these two forms of alternative tourism. This paper
gap
attempts to bridge this _____________ by exploring the existence of
backpacker motivations to participate in volunteer tourism.
 Task 22
•Choose a word from the list to complete each sentence.
assertion zone method gap species

While rainfall was the primary determinant of the food supply in

most of Serengeti, the far-east differed by lacking riverine grassland.
zone
In this _____________ rainfall was less suitable as a predictor of
resources.
 Task 22
•Choose a word from the list to complete each sentence.
assertion zone method gap species

Pedicularis torta is a typical obligate biennial herb growing in

different light habitats from forest understory to alpine meadows in
an alpine region (i.e. found from wet alpine meadow to forested
species
areas with varying canopy coverage).Thus, this _____________ is
ideal for investigating the plasticity response of reproductive traits,
plant size (estimated by above-ground vegetative biomass) at
maturity in the second year.
 Task 22
•Choose a word from the list to complete each sentence.
assertion zone method gap species

Many WUIF entrepreneurs emphasize to their clients that they

are practicing “sustainable,” “low impact,” or “green” management.
Thus, at least in their rhetoric, they emphasize environmental
quality and some even imply that their work produces higher
environmental quality than does timber-oriented forestry and
logging operations, although none offered specific evidence to
assertion
support this _______________.
 Task 22
•Choose a word from the list to complete each sentence.
assertion zone method gap species

• WUIF entrepreneurs usually charge by some measure of time and

materials. Several stated that they prefer this_________________
method
over charging a commission on stumpage because it helps in
marketing their services to the landowner.
 Task 23
• Read the following text. Analyze how the old-to-new pattern is
established.
• ❶ For better or for worse, human behavior has a large influence
on the global ecology. ❷ Many of the environmental challenges
facing us today are a direct result of human actions, and as such
may require behavioral solutions (Oskamp, 2000; Saunders, 003).
❸ In recognition of this fact, many researchers have investigated
the social and psychological factors that influence environmental
attitudes and behaviors. ❹ Much of this research has focused on
the role of specific values, beliefs, and norms as predictors of
environmental concern (Dietz, Fitzgerald, & Shwom, 2005; Dietz,
Stern, & Guagnano, 1998; Schultz, 2001).
 Task 24

• Please put the following sentences in the right order. Write

down the corresponding letters in the blanks by taking old-to-
new information pattern into consideration.
 Task 24
• A. Flowering time is regulated by multiple environmental and
endogenous factors.
• B. These pathways ultimately crosstalk at common targets, such as
Flowering Locus T (FT) and Leafy, to promote the transition from
vegetative to reproductive phase.
• C. Unlike most animals, plants are sessile organisms.
• D. In general, these factors can be grouped into four genetic
pathways: the photoperiod, phytohormone, vernalization, and
autonomous pathways.
• E. To adapt to unfavorable and sometimes unexpected conditions,
plants have evolved many flexible survival strategies, one of which
is the control of flowering time.
• (1) C (2) E (3) A (4) D (5) ____ B
 Task 25
• Read the passage. Improve it according to the following
suggestions.
• ❶ Polylactide (PLA) receives much attention in recent years
because its biodegradable properties, which offer important
economic benefits.
• Suggestion
• In sentence 1, “because” is misused. Use another connector to
replace it. Correct the wrongly-used tense.
• Improved sentence
• Polylactide (PLA) has received much attention in recent years due
to its biodegradable properties, which offer important economic
benefits.
 Task 25
• ❷ PLA is a polymer. ❸ PLA is obtained from corn. ❹ PLA is
produced by the polymerization of lactide. ❺ It has many
possible uses in the biomedical field and has also been
investigated as a potential engineering material. ❻ It has been
found to be too weak under impact to be used commercially.
• Suggestion
• Join Sentence 2 with sentences 3, 4.
• Add a connector in Sentence 6 to improve the flow of ideas.
• Improved sentence
• PLA is a polymer obtained from corn and is produced by the
polymerization of lactide. It has many possible uses in the
biomedical field and has also been investigated as a potential
engineering material. However, it has been found to be too weak
under impact to be used commercially.
 Task 25
• ❼One way to toughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of
rubber particles and there has been extensive research regarding
the rubber modification of PLA. ❽ For example, Penny et al.
shows that PLA composites could be prepared using blending
techniques and more recently, Hillier establishes the toughness of
such composites.
• Suggestion
• Add a connector in Sentences 8 to improve the flow of ideas.
• Correct the wrongly-used tenses in Sentence 8.
 Task 25
• Improved sentences
• One way to thoughen polymers is to incorporate a layer of rubber
particles and there has been extensive research regarding the
rubber modification of PLA. For example, Penny et al. showed that
PLA composites could be prepared using blending techniques and
more recently, Hillier established the toughness of such
composites.
 Task 25
• ❾ However, although the effect of the rubber particles on the
mechanical properties of copolymer systems demonstrated over
two years ago, little attention has paid to the selection of an
appropriate rubber component. ❿ The present paper presented a
set of criteria for selecting such a component. ⑪On the basis of
these criteria it then described the preparation of a set of polymer
blends using PLA and a hydro-carbon rubber (PI). ⑫It formed a
novel copolymer in which the incorporation of PI significantly
increased flexibility. ⑬This new material has great commercial
value.
• Suggestion
• Correct the wrongly-used voices in Sentence 9
• Correct the wrongly-used tenses in Sentences 10, 11
• Use this + summary noun instead of it to make Sentence 12 clearer
• Make the last sentence more acceptable by adding a modal auxiliary.
 Task 25
• Improved sentences
• However, although the effect of the rubber particles on the
mechanical properties of copolymer systems was demonstrated
over two years ago, little attention has been paid to the selection
of an appropriate rubber component. The present paper presents
a set of criteria for selecting such a component. On the basis of
these criteria it then describes the preparation of a set of polymer
blends using PLA and a hydro-carbon rubber (PI). This
combination formed a novel copolymer in which the
incorporation of PI significantly increased flexibility. This new
material will have great commercial value.
 Task 26
• Please write the Introduction section of a paper in your own
research field.
 Checklist

• Information Convention
 Funnel-shaped Structure
 The CARS (Creating-a-Research-Space) Model
•Important Points in Each Move
•Move 1: Establishing a Territory
 Writing a Definition
 Short Definitions
 Sentence Definitions
 Extended Definitions
 Citations in Introduction
 Verb Tenses in Citations
 Paraphrasing
 Checklist

• Move 2: Establishing a Niche

 Four Methods to Establish a Niche
 Indicating Words
•Move 3: Occupying the Niche
 Purposes or Nature of the Research
 Verb Tenses Used in Purpose
 Research Questions
 Research Value
 Paper Outline
•Information Flow
 Old-to-New Pattern