Cellular functions
Prepared by HAGENIMANA Francois,RN, BScN, CCT
INRODUCTION
Anatomy is the study of the structure and makeup
of the human body, while physiology is the study of
how the body's structures function and interact.
The human body is an incredibly complex and
interconnected system composed of various organs,
tissues, and cells that work together to sustain life.
Cells are the fundamental units of life, and they
perform a wide range of essential functions to
sustain the body's overall health and homeostasis.
MAJOR PRIMARY CELLULAR FUNCTIONS
Metabolism
Catabolism: Breakdown of nutrients to produce energy.
Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from
simpler ones, used for cell growth and repair.
ATP production: Energy currency of the cell, mainly
generated in mitochondria.
Growth and Reproduction
Cell growth: Increase in cell size and volume.
Cell division: Mitosis (in somatic cells) or meiosis (in
germ cells) for reproduction or tissue repair.
Cont…
Response to Stimuli (Irritability)
Cells detect and respond to changes in their environment
(e.g., temperature, pH, hormones).
Homeostasis
Regulation of internal conditions (e.g., ion balance, pH,
osmotic pressure) to maintain a stable internal
environment.
Protein Synthesis
DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into
proteins that perform various structural and functional
roles.
Cont…
Transport of Substances
Passive transport: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated
diffusion.
Active transport: Requires energy (e.g., Na⁺/K⁺ pump).
Endocytosis and exocytosis: Substance transport of
materials in and out of the cell.
Communication and Signaling
• Cells communicate via chemical signals (hormones,
neurotransmitters) and respond through receptors on
their surface or inside the cell.
Cont…
Waste Elimination
Removal of cellular waste products through exocytosis or
diffusion to maintain internal balance.
Structural Integrity and Movement
Maintained by cytoskeleton components (microtubules,
microfilaments).
In some cells, movement via cilia, flagella, or amoeboid
motion.
Animal cell vs plant cell
Feature Animal Cell Plant Cell
Cell Wall Absent Present (made of cellulose)
Chloroplas Absent Present (site of photosynthesis)
ts
Vacuole Small and multiple (if Large central vacuole
present)
Shape Usually round or Usually rectangular or fixed
irregular shape
Centrioles Present Usually absent (except in some
lower plant cells)
Lysosome Common Rare
s
Energy Glycogen Starch
Storage
Mode of Heterotrophic Autotrophic (due to
cont…
Cells are the fundamental unit of life.
Cells are self-replicating structures.
The first cells were observed and named by Robert
Hooke in 1665 from a slice of cork.
Some organisms consist of a single, unicellular
organism, while others are multicellular.
The diameter of cells ranges from 2-120
micrometers (μm).
Cell Theory
Proposed by Matthais Schleiden and Theodor Schwann
in 1839:
All living organisms are made up of cells.
Cells are the basic units of structure in all organisms.
The cell is the basic unit of life.
All the functions of an organism occur within cells, making
them the smallest unit of life.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
New cells are produced only by the division of existing
cells (via mitosis or meiosis).
CONSTITUENTS
Different substances that make up a cell are
collectively called Protoplasm.
Protoplasm is composed of:
Water - 70-80% water is present in the cell.
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Electrolytes - Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Magnesium
(Mg2+), Calcium (Ca2+), Phosphate, Chloride (Cl-), and
Bicarbonate (HCO3-).
SUBCELLULAR STRUCTURES
Major Structures Present in a cell are :-
o Cell Membrane
o Cytoplasm and its Organelles
o Nucleus
Cell Membrane
It is the thin, pliable, and elastic outermost structure that envelops
the cell.
It consists of a bilipid layer with embedded proteins:
Integral Proteins - Proteins that are embedded within the lipid bilayer.
Peripheral Proteins - Proteins that are attached to the surface of the lipid
bilayer.
The lipid bilayer is composed of phospholipid molecules arranged in
a double layer.
The membrane also contains protein channels and globular proteins
that facilitate the movement of substances in and out of the cell.
The cytoskeleton filaments are also attached to the cell membrane.
Functions of Cell Membrane
Protective: Forms the outermost boundary of the cell
organelles.
Digestive: Takes in food and excretes waste products.
Selective Permeability:
a) Non-Polar Molecules: Gases (like O2, CO2, N2), lipids,
steroid hormones, and alcohols can dissolve in the non-polar
regions of the membrane and move rapidly across the
membrane.
b) Polar Molecules: H2O soluble ions, glucose, urea, etc.
have much lower solubility and therefore penetrate the
membrane much more slowly.
Cont…
Chemical and Physical Properties: The
membrane's chemical and physical properties
control the free passage of ions in and out of the
cell.
This property helps in maintaining the components in the
intracellular fluid (ICF) and extracellular fluid (ECF).
Links adjacent cells together by junctional
complexes to form tissues.
Insulating Properties: It acts as dielectric material of
a charged condenser, thus cell membrane have very
high insulating value.
CYTOPLASM
Thick, gel-like semitransparent fluid that is
found in both plant and animal cells.
The constituent parts of cytoplasm are:
cytosol, cell organelles, and cytoplasmic
inclusions.
Bounded by the plasma membrane, and contains
many organelles in a eukaryotic cell (cell containing
membrane-bounded nucleus).
CYTOSOL
The cytosol, the aqueous part of the cytoplasm
outside all of the organelles, also contains its own
distinctive proteins.
It accounts for almost 70% of the total cell
volume.
Gelatinous substance consisting mainly of
cytoskeleton filaments, organic molecules, salt, and
water.
Chemically, the cytoplasmic matrix is composed of
many chemical elements in the form of atoms,
ions, and molecules.
The organelles present in the cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lysosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Peroxisomes
Vacuole
Mitochondria
The mitochondria were first observed by Kolliker in
1850 as granular structures in the striated muscles.
Mitochondria are called the 'powerhouse of the cell'.
Structure
Length: 5-12 μm
Diameter: 0.5-1 μm
Filamentous or globular in shape
Composed of an inner and outer membrane
Contains cristae (inner folds) and a matrix
Components of Mitochondria
Outer Membrane
Inner Membrane
Intermediate Space - space
between outer and inner
membranes
Cristae - Infoldings of inner
membrane
Matrix - The space enclosed
by inner membrane
Cont…
Outermost Membrane
Contains large numbers of integral membrane proteins called
Porins
These porins form channels that allow molecules of 5000 daltons
or less to pass
Studded with enzymes concerned with biological oxidation
Interior (Matrix) of the Mitochondria
Contains enzymes concerned with 'citric acid cycle' and
'respiratory chain oxidation'
Major metabolic pathways involved in oxidation of carbohydrates,
lipids and amino acids, as well as part of special biosynthetic
pathways involving urea and heme synthesis, are located in the
inner matrix.
Inner Membrane
It contains ATPase and other enzymes concerned
with the synthesis and metabolism of ATP.
It contains enzymes of the Electron Transport Chain.
The ultimate purpose of these mechanisms is
oxidative phosphorylation and synthesis of ATP.
Mitochondria have some proteins synthesized by
Mitochondrial DNA.
Functions of Mitochondria
Power Generating Units of the Cells: Mitochondria serve as
the power-generating units of the cells, producing energy
through the process of respiration.
Calcium Ion Regulation: Mitochondria are important in
maintaining the proper concentration of calcium ions within the
various compartments of the cell.
Energy Transduction through Respiration: Mitochondria are
responsible for the energy transduction process through
respiration, converting chemical energy into usable forms of
energy for the cell.
Thermogenesis: Mitochondria are responsible for
thermogenesis, the process of heat generation within the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Network of Tubular and Flat Vesicular
Structures: The ER is a network of tubular
and flat vesicular structures within the
cytoplasm of the cell.
Closed, Flattened Membrane-Bounded
Sacs: The ER consists of an extensive
network of closed, flattened membrane-
bounded sacs called cisternae.
Endoplasmic Matrix: The space inside the
tubules of the ER is filled with the
Endoplasmic Matrix.
Smooth Endoplasmic Rough Endoplasmic
Feature
Reticulum (SER) Reticulum (RER)
Riboso
Ribosomes absent Contains ribosomes
mes
Functio Site of synthesis of lipid Site of protein synthesis,
n and steroid hormones processing, and packaging
Mainly present in lipid
forming cells such as Mainly present in protein
adipocytes, interstitial cells forming cells such as
Cell of testis, glycogen storing pancreatic acinar cells,
Types cells of liver, adrenal cortex Goblet cells, Nissl's
cells, muscle cells, granules of nerve cells,
antibody producing plasma etc.
leucocytes, etc.
Function
Synthesis of proteins
Protein segregation
Unsaturation of fatty acid
Muscle contraction (ER is commonly known as
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum in muscle fibers)
Golgi Bodies
The Golgi apparatus (or Golgi
complex) is a membrane-bound
organelle in eukaryotic cells, integral
to the endomembrane system.
Discovered by Camillo Golgi, it is
composed of fixed, crushed sacs
called cisternae, with distinct regions:
the cis face (receiving end for vesicles
from the endoplasmic reticulum) and
the trans face (shipping side for
processed materials).
Functions of Golgi Bodies
Produces secretion granules: Membrane-enclosed
complexes that store hormones and enzymes in protein
secreting cells, and package proteins.
Site of formation of lysosomes: Large irregular
structures surrounded by membrane, present in the
cytoplasm.
Adds certain carbohydrates to form
glycoproteins: These glycoproteins play an important
role in the association of cells to form tissues.
Lysosomes
Diameter- 250 -750nm These are the irregular
structures surrounded by the unit membrane.
More acidic than rest of the cytoplasm and external
bacteria as well as worn out cell components are
digested in them.
The interior is kept acidic(near pH 5.0) by the action
of proton pump or H+ or ATPase.
Lysosomes are cell hydrolases and they function best
at the acidic pH.
Functions of Lysosomes
Acts as a digestive (lytic) system for the cell: The enzymes
present in lysosomes can digest essentially all macromolecules.
Engulf worn-out components of cells: Lysosomes engulf and
digest the worn-out components of the cells in which they are
located.
Engulf and degrade exogenous substances: Lysosomes can
engulf and degrade external substances, such as bacteria.
Autolyse the remnant when a cell dies: When a cell dies, the
lysosomal enzymes cause autolysis (self-digestion) of the
remnant, which is why lysosomes are called "Suicidal Bags".
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes have a diameter of around 0.5 μm.
Peroxisomes are surrounded by a lipid bilayer
membrane, which regulates what enters or exits the
peroxisomes.
Peroxisomes have a urate oxidase crystalline core.
The structure of peroxisomes is similar to that of
lysosomes, but with a different composition.
Peroxisomes can be formed by the budding of the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or by division.
Cont…
Contains oxidases that produces H2O2.
Catalases degrades hydrogen peroxide to yield
water and oxygen
Proteins are directed to the Peroxisomes by a unique
signal sequence with the help of protein
chaperones, Peroxins.
The functions of peroxisomes
H2O2 metabolism and detoxification
Helping in Photorespiration in plants
Biosynthesis of lipids
Synthesis of cholesterol and dolichol in animals
Synthesis of bile acids in the liver
Synthesis of plasmalogens (myelin sheath)
cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is made up primarily of three main
components:
Microtubules
Intermediate Filaments
Microfilaments
These cytoskeletal components, along with proteins that anchor
and tie them together, form the structural framework of the cell.
The cytoskeleton plays a crucial role in various cellular functions,
such as:
Maintaining the overall shape and structure of the cell
Enabling the cell to change shape and move
Providing a network for the movement of organelles and other cellular
components within the cell
End
