CONTROL SYSTEMS

Course Synopsis
• Provides a background of control
principles in various engineering
applications.
• Basic mathematical tools such as
1. Laplace transform,
2. mathematical modeling of dynamic
systems
3.block diagram signal flow graph,
 4)Time response analysis, Root
locus ,Stability of linear transfer
function,
5)Frequency domain analysis
• 6) Lead , Lag and Lag-Lead
compensation techniques and
• 7) State Space Techniques are discussed
Course Outcomes:
 CO1
 Ability to apply various mathematical
principles (from calculus and linear
algebra) to solve control system
problems.
 CO2
 Ability to obtain mathematical models
for such mechanical, electrical and
electromechanical systems.
 CO3
 Ability to derive equivalent differential
equation, transfer function and state
space model for a given system.
 CO4
 The ability to perform system’s time
and frequency-domain analysis with
response to test inputs. Analysis
includes the determination of the
system stability.
• A system is an arrangement , set, or
collection of things are related in
such a manner as to form an entirety
or whole.
• A system is an arrangement of
physical components connected or
related in such a manner as to form
an entirety or whole.
• The word “Control” usually is taken to
mean regulate ,direct or command

• A control system is an arrangement of

physical components are connected or
related in such a manner as to regulate,
direct or command itself or another
system.
• In simple way it is possible to
consider every physical object is a
control system. Because every thing
alters its environment in some
manner if not actively then passively.
• Example : A mirror directing a beam of
light shining on it at some acute angle
the mirror may be considered an
elementary control system, controlling
the beam of light according to the simple
equation
• Angle of reflection ‘α’ = angle of
incidence as shown in fig 1.1
• If we want to regulate the beam as we
desire the mirror is pivoted at one end
and adjusted up and down with a screw
at the other end is properly termed as a
control system
• The angle of reflected light is regulated
by means of the screw as shown in
fig.1.2
• The control system is not only
applicable to physical systems (Man
made control system).It is also
applicable for non-physical systems
and Systems normally existed in nature
(Biological control system)
 Examples for different types of
control systems
All man made systems are physical
systems
Examples: Electrical switch , Bread
Toaster , Washing machine etc…
Non Physical systems :-
Examples : Demand and supply, Inflation
rate control , Budget control,
Bio-logical control system (Natural
control system)
Examples: Human being, Seasonal
Fruits

(Manmade + Bio-logical control

system)
Examples:- Automobile vehicle
 Examples of control system

Input : Input may be a physical

variable or more abstract quantities
such as Reference , Set point or
Desired Values for the output of the
control system.
• Output: The output is the actual
response obtained from a control
system
• It may or may not be equal to the
specified response applied by the
input.
• Eg 1 :- Electric Switch
• An Electric switch is a man made
control system controlling the flow of
electricity.
• Flipping the switch on or off may be
considered as a input. The output is the
flow of electricity
• Eg 2: Room heater
• The input to the system is a reference
temperature usually specified by
appropriately setting a thermostat. The
output is the actual temperature of the
room.
• When the thermostat detects that the
output is less than the input, the
furnace provides heat until the
temperature of the room becomes
equal to the reference input. Then the
furnace is automatically turned off.
• When the temperature falls below the
reference temperature, the furnace is
turned on again
• Eg 3 :- The seemingly simple act of
“pointing at an object with a finger “
requires a biological control system
consisting chiefly of the eyes, the arm,
the hand and the brain.
• The input is the precise direction of the
object with respect to some reference
and the output is actual pointed
direction with respect to the same
reference.
• Eg 4 :- The control system consisting of a
person driving an auto mobile is the man
made + Biological control system
• The driver wants to keep the automobile
in the appropriate lane of the road way
• He or she accomplishes this by constantly
watching the direction of the automobile
with respect to the direction of the
automobile with respect to the direction
of the road.
• In this case the direction or heading of
the road represented by the painted
guidelines on either side of the lane may
be considered as input.
• The heading of the automobile is the
output of the system
• The driver controls this output by
constantly measuring it with his/her
eyes and brain and correcting it with
his/her hands on the steering wheel.
• The major components of this control
system are the drivers hands, eyes, and
brain and the vehicle
Problems
• Identify the input and output of the control
system shown below
Answer :
• The input is the angle of inclination
of the mirror θ, varied by turning the
screw. The output is the angular
position of the reflected beam (θ + α)
from the reference surface.
Ques: Identify the input and output for an
automated washing machine
Many Washing machines operate in the
manner that, after clothes have been put
into the machine, the soap or detergent,
bleach and water are entered in the proper
amounts. The wash and spin cycle is then
set on a timer and washer is energized.
When the cycle is completed the machine
shuts itself off.
• Ans: If the proper amount of bleach,
detergent and water and the appropriate
temperature of the water are
predetermined or specified by the
manufacturer or automatically entered by
the machine itself, then the input is the
time for wash and spin cycle.The timer is
usually set by the human operator.
• The output of a washing machine is
cleanliness of the clothes (however the
percentage of cleanliness depends on the
absence of the foreign substances/stains
from the items to be washed).
Question:
Identify the human organ system
components and their respective input and
output and describe the operation of
biological control system consisting of a
human being reaching an object.
• The basic components of this control
system: the brain, arm & hand and eyes.
• The brain sends the required nervous
system signal to the arm & hand and to
reach the object
• The signal is amplified in the muscles of
arm & hand which serves as a power
actuator for the system.
• The eyes are employed as sensing device
continuously “feeding back” the position
of the hand to the brain .
• Hand position is the output for the system
and input is the object position.
• Assignment Questions:
Identify the input and output while describing
the operation for the following control
systems
1)Automatic temperature regulating oven.
2)Electric Geyser
3)Bread toaster
4)Traffic regulating system
5)Bath room toilet tank
THANK YOU
BATHROOM TOILET TANK CONTROL
• Practical Examples of Open Loop Control System
• Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output) comes out as long as
you keep your hand under the machine, irrespective of how
much your hand is dried.
• Automatic Washing Machine - This machine runs according
to the pre-set time irrespective of washing is completed or
not.
• Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per adjusted time
irrespective of toasting is completed or not.
• Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker - These machines also function
for pre adjusted time only.
• Timer Based Clothes Drier - This machine dries wet clothes
for pre-adjusted time, it does not matter how much the
clothes are dried.
• Light Switch - Lamps glow whenever light switch is on
irrespective of light is required or not.
• Volume on Stereo System - Volume is adjusted manually
irrespective of output volume level.
AUTOMATIC WASHING MACHINE
WITH OPEN LOOP SYSTEM
Advantages of Open Loop Control System
• Simple in construction and design.
• Economical.
• Easy to maintain.
• Generally stable.
• Convenient to use as output is difficult to
measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System
• They are inaccurate.
• They are unreliable.
• Any change in output cannot be corrected
automatically.
Closed Loop Control System
• Control system in which the output has an effect
on the input quantity in such a manner that the
input quantity will adjust itself based on the
output generated is called closed loop control
system.
• Open loop control system can be converted in to
closed loop control system by providing a
feedback. This feedback automatically makes the
suitable changes in the output due to external
disturbance.
Block Diagram of Closed Loop
Control System
Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
• Automatic Electric Iron - Heating elements are
controlled by output temperature of the iron.
• Servo Voltage Stabilizer - Voltage controller operates
depending upon output voltage of the system.
• Water Level Controller - Input water is controlled by
water level of the reservoir.
• Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar - The
direction of missile is controlled by comparing the
target and position of the missile.
• An Air Conditioner - An air conditioner functions
depending upon the temperature of the room.
• Cooling System in Car - It operates depending upon
the temperature which it controls.
WASHING MACHINE WITH CLOSED
LOOP SYSTEM
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
• Closed loop control systems are more accurate even
in the presence of non-linearity.
• Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due
to presence of feedback signal.
• Bandwidth range is large.
• Facilitates automation.
• The sensitivity of system may be made small to make
system more stable.
• This system is less affected by noise.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
• They are costlier.
• They are complicated to design.
• Required more maintenance.
• Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
• Overall gain is reduced due to presence of
feedback.
• Stability is the major problem and more care is
needed to design a stable closed loop system.
• Linear Control Systems
• In order to understand the linear control system, we
should know the principle of superposition. The principle
of superposition theorem includes two the important
properties and they are explained below:
Homogeneity: A system is said to be homogeneous, if we
multiply input with some constant A then output will also
be multiplied by the same value of constant (i.e. A).

Additivity: Suppose we have a system S and we are

giving the input to this system as a1 for the first time and
we are getting output as b1corresponding to input a1. On
second time we are giving input a2 and correspond to this
we are getting output as b2.
• Now suppose this time we giving input as
summation of the previous inputs (i.e. a1 + a2)
and corresponding to this input suppose we
are getting output as (b1 + b2) then we can say
that system S is following the property of
additivity. Now we are able to define
the linear control systems as those types of
control systems which follow the principle of
homogeneity and additivity.
Examples of Linear Control System
• Consider a purely resistive network with a
constant DC source. This circuit follows the
principle of homogeneity and additivity. All
the undesired effects are neglected and
assuming ideal behavior of each element in
the network, we say that we will get
linear voltage and current characteristic. This
is the example of linear control system
Non-linear Systems
• We can simply define non linear control
system as all those system which do not
follow the principle of homogeneity. In
practical life all the systems are non-linear
system.
Examples of Non-linear System
• A well known example of non-linear system is
magnetization curve or no load curve of a DC machine.
We will discuss briefly no load curve of DC machines
here: No load curve gives us the relationship between
the air gap flux and the field winding mmf. It is very
clear from the curve given below that in the beginning
there is a linear relationship between winding mmf
and the air gap flux but after this, saturation has come
which shows the non linear behavior of the curve or
characteristics of the non linear control system.
Analog or Continuous System
• In these types of control system we have
continuous signal as the input to the system.
These signals are the continuous function of
time. We may have various sources of
continuous input signal like sinusoidal type
signal input source, square type of signal input
source, signal may be in the form of
continuous triangle etc.
Digital or Discrete System
• In these types of control system we have discrete
signal (or signal may be in the form of pulse) as
the input to the system. These signals have the
discrete interval of time. We can convert various
sources of continuous input signal like sinusoidal
type signal input source, square type of signal
input source etc into discrete form using the
switch.
• Now there are various advantages of discrete or
digital system over the analog system and these
advantages are written below:
• Digital systems can handle non linear control systems
more effectively than the analog type of systems.
• Power requirement in case of discrete or digital system is
less as compared to analog systems.
• Digital system has higher rate of accuracy and can
perform various complex computations easily as
compared to analog systems.
• Reliability of digital system is more as compared to
analog system. They also have small and compact size.
• Digital system works on the logical operations which
increases their accuracy many times.
• Losses in case of discrete systems are less as compared
to analog systems in general.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS

TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

1 April 2017

55
 Classification of control systems

• Control systems are classified into two

general categories.
1) Open loop control system
2) Closed Loop control system

The distinction is determined by the

control action
• The outstanding features of open-loop
control system are
1)Ability to perform accurately as
determined by the calibration (calibration
means to establish the input output
relation to obtain a desired system
accuracy.
2)They are not usually troubled with
problems of instability
• Practical Examples of Open Loop
Control System
• Electric Hand Drier - Hot air (output)
comes out as long as you keep your hand
under the machine, irrespective of how
much your hand is dried.
• Automatic Washing Machine - This
machine runs according to the pre-set
time irrespective of washing is completed
or not.
• Bread Toaster - This machine runs as per
adjusted time irrespective of toasting is
completed or not.

Energy supply

Outpu
Input Heating t
(Desired Timer Bread
Colour) elements (Actua
l
colour)

Disturbance
• Traffic control system – The traffic is controlled as
per the adjusted time irrespective of the density of
the traffic.

Block Diagram of traffic control

system
• Traffic lights control the flow of traffic by
successively confronting the traffic in a
particular direction.
• When one direction has the green signal the
cross traffic in the other direction has the red.
• The Red and Green light intervals are pre-
determined by a calibrated timing mechanism.
• Control systems operated by preset timing
mechanism are open-loop.
AUTOMATIC WASHING MACHINE WITH OPEN
LOOP SYSTEM
• Automatic Washing machines are
calibrated by estimating the
combination of the amount of detergent
amount of bleach or other additives
amount of water and temperature of
water and cycle time as input.
Advantages of Open Loop Control
System
• Simple in construction and design.
• Economical.
• Easy to maintain.
• Generally stable.
• Convenient to use as output is difficult
to measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control
System
• They are inaccurate.
• They are unreliable.
• Any change in output cannot be corrected
automatically.
 Closed Loop Control System

• Control system in which the output has

an effect on the input quantity in such a
manner that the input quantity will adjust
itself based on the output generated is
called closed loop control system.
• Open loop control system can be
converted in to closed loop control
system by providing a feedback. This
feedback automatically makes the
suitable changes in the output due to
external disturbance.
Block Diagram of Closed Loop Control System
Practical Examples of Closed Loop
Control System
• Servo Voltage Stabilizer - Voltage
controller operates depending upon
output voltage of the system.
• Water Level Controller - Input water
is controlled by water level of the
reservoir.
Water Level Controller
• The container is the plant because the
water level of the container is being
controlled.
• The stopper valve may be chosen as a
control element
• The ball float, cord and associated
linkage as the feedback elements.
• The feedback is negative because the
water flow rate to the container must
decrease as the water level raises.
Block Diagram of a water level
controller
WASHING MACHINE WITH CLOSED LOOP SYSTEM
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System
• Closed loop control systems are more accurate
even in the presence of non-linearity.
• Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected
due to presence of feedback signal.
• Bandwidth range is large.
• Facilitates automation.
• The sensitivity of system may be made small to
make system more stable.
• This system is less affected by noise.
Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
• They are costlier.
• They are complicated to design.
• Required more maintenance.
• Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
• Overall gain is reduced due to presence of
feedback.
• Stability is the major problem and more care is
needed to design a stable closed loop system.
 Characteristics of feed back
• Increased accuracy.
• Tendency toward oscillation or instability
• Reduce sensitivity of the ratio of output
to input to variation in system parameters.
• Reduced effects of non-linearities.
• Reduced effects of external disturbances
or noise
• Increased bandwidth.
 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
1)Explain the operation of ordinary traffic
signals Which control automobile traffic
at roadway intersections.
2) Why are they open loop systems.
3)How can traffic be controlled efficiently
4)Why is the system of (3) closed loop ?
Solution
1)Traffic lights controls the flow of traffic
by successively confronting the traffic in
a particular direction with a red and then
a green light .When one direction has a
green signal the cross traffic in the other
direction has red . Most traffic signals red
and green light intervals are
predetermined by a calibrated mechanism.
2) Control systems are operated by preset
timing mechanisms are open – loop . The
control action is equal to the input the red
and green intervals.
3) Besides preventing collisions , it is a
function of traffic signal to generally
controlled the volume of traffic .
• For the open loop system described above
the volume of traffic does not influence
the preset red and green time intervals.
• In order to make traffic flow more
smoothly the green light timing must be
made longer than the red in the direction
containing the greater traffic volume.
4) The system of (3) is closed loop because
the control action (the difference between
the volume of traffic in each direction ) is
a function of output (actual traffic volume
flowing past the intersection in each
direction)
Devise a closed-loop automatic toaster
Solution:
Assume each heating element supplies
the same amount of heat to both sides of
the bread and toast quality can be
determined by its color.
The simplified Schematic diagram of one
possible way to apply the feedback
principle to a toaster is shown in fig
below.
Only One side of the Toaster is shown
• The toaster is initially calibrated for a
desired toast quality by means of color
adjustment knob.
• The setting never needs re-adjustment
unless the toast quality criterion changes.
• When the switch is closed , the bread is
toasted un-till the color detector “sees”
the desired color.
• Then the switch is automatically opened
by means of the feed back linkage ,
which may be electrical or mechanical
 Assignment Problems
1) Devise a simple control system which
automatically turns on the room lamp at
dark , and turns it off in day light.
2) Devise a simple control system which
explains the operation of a geyser.
3) Identify the components in the control
system for the human being reaching and
picking up an object.
For all the above problems draw the
block diagrams
• Linear Control Systems
In order to understand the linear control
system, we should know the principle of
superposition. The principle
of superposition theorem includes two
important properties
1)Homogeneity
2)Additivity
Homogeneity:
A system is said to be homogeneous, if
we multiply input with some constant A
then output will also be multiplied by the
same value of constant (i.e. A).
• Additivity:
Suppose we have a system S and we are
giving the input to this system as a1 for
the first time and we are getting output as
b1corresponding to input a1. On second
time we are giving input a2 and
correspond to this we are getting output
as b2.
• Now suppose this time we giving input as
summation of the previous inputs
(i.e. a1 + a2) and corresponding to this
input suppose we are getting output as
(b1 + b2) then we can say that system S is
following the property of additivity. Now
we are able to define the linear control
systems as those types of control
systems which follow the principle of
homogeneity and additivity.
Examples of Linear Control System
• Consider a purely resistive network with
a constant DC source. This circuit follows
the principle of homogeneity and
additivity. All the undesired effects are
neglected and assuming ideal behavior of
each element in the network, we say that
we will get linear voltage and current
characteristic. This is the example
of linear control system
Non-linear Systems
We can simply define non linear control
system as all those system which do not
follow the principle of homogeneity. In
practical life all the systems are non-
linear system.
Examples of Non-linear System
• A well known example of non-linear
system is magnetization curve or no load
curve of a DC machine. We will discuss
briefly no load curve of DC machines
here:
• No load curve gives us the relationship
between the air gap flux and the field
winding mmf. It is very clear from the
curve given below that in the beginning
there is a linear relationship between
winding mmf and the air gap flux but
after this, saturation has come which
shows the non linear behavior of the
curve or characteristics of the non linear
control system.
Magnetisation characteristic of a DC Machine
Analog or Continuous System
• In these types of control system we have
continuous signal as the input to the
system. These signals are the continuous
function of time. We may have various
sources of continuous input signal like
sinusoidal type signal input source,
square type of signal input source, signal
may be in the form of continuous triangle
etc.
Digital or Discrete System
• In these types of control system we have
discrete signal (or signal may be in the
form of pulse) as the input to the system.
These signals have the discrete interval of
time. We can convert various sources of
continuous input signal like sinusoidal
type signal input source, square type of
signal input source etc into discrete form
using the switch.
 Advantages of digital system over the
analog system are
• Digital systems can handle non linear
control systems more effectively than the
analog type of systems.
• Power requirement in case of discrete or
digital system is less as compared to
analog systems.
• Digital system has higher rate of accuracy
and can perform various complex
computations easily as compared to
analog systems.
• Reliability of digital system is more as
compared to analog system. They also
have small and compact size.
• Digital system works on the logical
operations which increases their accuracy
many times.
• Losses in case of discrete systems are less
as compared to analog systems in
general.
Time Variant or Time Invariant Systems
Definition:
• A system is said to be Time Invariant if its
input output characteristics do not
change with time. Otherwise it is said to
be Time Variant system.
• If the system is governed by any
differential equation and if the coefficient
of differential equation is constant then
the system is said to be TIS .
 101

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Block Diagram fundamentals & reduction

techniques
Block Diagram fundamentals &
reduction techniques
Introduction
• Block diagram is a shorthand, graphical representation
of a physical system, illustrating the functional
relationships among its components.
OR
• A Block Diagram is a shorthand pictorial representation
of the cause-and-effect relationship of a system.
 Introduction
• The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with one
input and one output.
• The interior of the rectangle representing the block usually contains
a description of or the name of the element, or the symbol for the
mathematical operation to be performed on the input to yield the
output.
• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.

d
x y
dt
 Introduction
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special
representation.
• The block becomes a small circle, called a summing point, with the
appropriate plus or minus sign associated with the arrows entering
the circle.
• Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.
• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
• Some books put a cross in the circle.
Components of a Block Diagram for a
Linear Time Invariant System
• System components are alternatively called elements of
the system.
• Block diagram has four components:
▫ Signals
▫ System/ block
▫ Summing junction
▫ Pick-up/ Take-off point
• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than
one block or summing point, a takeoff point is used.
• Distributes the input signal, undiminished, to several output points.
• This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several different
paths to several destinations.
 Example-1

• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables, and
a1, a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.

x3  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  5
 Example-1
• Consider the following equations in which x1, x2, x3, are variables, and
a1, a2 are general coefficients or mathematical operators.

x3  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  5
 Example-2
• Consider the following equations in which x 1, x2,. . . , xn, are variables,
and a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or mathematical operators.

x n  a1 x1  a 2 x 2  a n  1 x n  1
 Example-3
• Draw the Block Diagrams of the following equations.

dx1 1
(1) x 2  a1  x1dt
dt b
d 2 x2 dx1
(2 ) x3  a1 3  bx1
dt 2 dt
Topologies
• We will now examine some common topologies for
interconnecting subsystems and derive the single
transfer function representation for each of them.
• These common topologies will form the basis for
reducing more complicated systems to a single block.
CASCADE
• Any finite number of blocks in series may be
algebraically combined by multiplication of transfer
functions.
• That is, n components or blocks with transfer functions
G1 , G2, . . . , Gn, connected in cascade are equivalent to a
single element G with a transfer function given by
Example

• Multiplication of transfer functions is commutative; that

is,
GiGj = GjGi
for any i or j .
Cascade:

Figure:
a) Cascaded Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent transfer function is

Parallel Form:
• Parallel subsystems have a common input and an output
formed by the algebraic sum of the outputs from all of the
subsystems.

Figure: Parallel Subsystems.

Parallel Form:

Figure:
a) Parallel Subsystems.
b) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent transfer function is

Feedback Form:
• The third topology is the feedback form. Let us derive the transfer
function that represents the system from its input to its output. The
typical feedback system, shown in figure:

Figure: Feedback (Closed Loop) Control System.

The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the summing junction is
negative and positive feedback if the sign is positive.
 Feedback Form:

Figure:
a)Feedback Control System.
b)Simplified Model or Canonical Form.
c) Equivalent Transfer Function.

The equivalent or closed-loop

transfer function is
 Characteristic Equation
• The control ratio is the closed loop transfer function of the system.

C (s ) G(s )

R( s ) 1 G(s )H (s )

• The denominator of closed loop transfer function determines the characteristic

equation of the system.

• Which is usually determined as:

1 G(s )H (s )  0
 Canonical Form of a Feedback Control System

The system is said to have negative feedback if the sign at the summing junction is negative and
positive feedback if the sign is positive.
 B(s )
1. Open loop transfer function G(s )H (s )
E (s )
C (s )
G( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function E (s )
C (s ) G( s ) G(s )

3. control ratio R(s ) 1  G(s )H (s )

B(s ) G(s )H (s )

4. feedback ratio R(s ) 1  G(s )H (s )

E (s ) 1 H (s )

5. error ratio R( s ) 1  G(s )H (s )
C (s ) G(s )

6. closed loop transfer function R( s ) 1  G(s )H (s )

1  G(s )H (s )  0
7. characteristic equation

8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.

Characteristic Equation
Unity Feedback System
Reduction techniques
1. Combining blocks in cascade

G1 G2 G1G2

2. Combining blocks in parallel

G1
G1  G2
G2
Reduction techniques
3. Moving a summing point behind a block

G G
Reduction techniques
3. Moving a summing point ahead of a block

G G
1
G

4. Moving a pickoff point behind a block

G G

5. Moving a pickoff point ahead of a block

G G
Reduction techniques
6. Eliminating a feedback loop

G
G
1 GH
H

G
G
1 G

H 1

7. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A
Block Diagram Transformation Theorems

The letter P is used to represent any transfer function, and W, X , Y, Z denote any
transformed signals.
Transformation Theorems Continue:
Transformation Theorems Continue:
Reduction of Complicated Block Diagrams:
Example-4: Reduce the Block Diagram to Canonical Form.
Example-4: Continue.

However in this example step-4 does not apply.

However in this example step-6 does not apply.

Example-5: Simplify the Block Diagram.
Example-5: Continue.
Example-6: Reduce the Block Diagram.
Example-6: Continue.
Example-7: Reduce the Block Diagram. (from Nise: page-
242)
Example-7: Continue.
Example-8: For the system represented by the following block
diagram determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.
 Example-8: Continue

▫ First we will reduce the given block diagram to canonical form

K
s 1
 Example-8: Continue

K
s 1

K
G s 1

1  GH K
1 s
s 1
 Example-8: Continue
B( s )
1. Open loop transfer function G(s )H (s )
E (s )
C (s )
G( s )
2. Feed Forward Transfer function E (s )
C (s ) G( s ) G(s )

3. control ratio R(s ) 1  G(s )H (s )

B( s ) G(s )H (s )

4. feedback ratio R( s ) 1  G(s )H (s )

E (s ) 1 H (s )

5. error ratio R( s ) 1  G(s )H (s )
C (s ) G(s )

6. closed loop transfer function R( s ) 1  G(s )H (s )

1  G(s )H (s )  0
7. characteristic equation

8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=10.

• Example-9: For the system represented by the following block diagram
determine:
1. Open loop transfer function
2. Feed Forward Transfer function
3. control ratio
4. feedback ratio
5. error ratio
6. closed loop transfer function
7. characteristic equation
8. closed loop poles and zeros if K=100.
Example-10: Reduce the system to a single transfer function.
(from Nise:page-243).
Example-10: Continue.
Example-10: Continue.
Example-11: Simplify the block diagram then obtain the close-loop
transfer function C(S)/R(S). (from Ogata: Page-47)
Example-11: Continue.
Example-12: Reduce the Block Diagram.

H2

R _ C
+ _ + G1 + G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+ _ + + G1 G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+ _ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ C
+ _ + + G1G2 G3
+

H1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ G1G2 C
+ _ + G3
1  G1G2 H 1
Example-12:

H2
G1
R _ G1G2G3 C
+ _ +
1  G1G2 H 1
Example-12:

R G1G2G3 C
+ _ 1  G1G2 H 1  G2G3 H 2
Example-12:

R G1G2G3 C
1  G1G2 H 1  G2G3 H 2  G1G2G3
Example 13: Find the transfer function of the following block
diagrams.

R (s ) Y (s )
G1 G2

H1 H2

H3
Solution:

1. Eliminate loop I

R (s ) I Y (s )
A B
G1 G2
H1 H2

H3
G2
2. Moving pickoff point A behind block
1  G2 H 2

R (s ) A G2 B
Y (s )
G1
1  G2 H 2

1  G2 H 2 II
H1 1  G2 H 2
G2 H 3  H1 ( )
G2
H3 Not a feedback loop
3. Eliminate loop II

R (s ) G1G2 Y (s )
1  G2 H 2

H 1 (1  G2 H 2 )
H3 
G2

Y (s ) G1G2

R(s ) 1  G2 H 2  G1G2 H 3  G1 H 1  G1G2 H 1 H 2
 CONTROL SYSTEMS

Signal flow graph Techniques

163
 Outline

• Introduction to Signal Flow Graphs

– Definitions
– Terminologies
– Examples
• Mason’s Gain Formula
– Examples
• Signal Flow Graph from Block Diagrams
• Design Examples
 Introduction
• Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed by Samuel
Jefferson Mason.

• Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also called Mason’s
gain formula.

• A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are connected by

directed branches.

• It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to another and gives
the relationships among the signals.

165
 Fundamentals of Signal Flow Graphs
• Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow graph:
y  ax

• The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

a y
x

• Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

• Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed by a Branch.
• Branches are always unidirectional.
• The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

Y1( s ) G11( s ) R1( s )  G12( s ) R2( s )

Y2( s ) G21( s ) R1( s )  G22( s ) R2( s )

 Signal-Flow Graph Models
r1 and r2 are inputs and x1 and x2 are outputs

a11x1  a12x2  r1 x1

a21x1  a22x2  r2 x2
 Signal-Flow Graph Models

xo is input and x4 is output

x1 ax0  bx1  cx 2 f
c
x 2 dx1  ex 3 x0 x1 x2 g x3 x4
a d h
x 3  fx0  gx 2
x4 hx 3 b e
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of simultaneous equations.

• There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4) therefore four nodes are required to construct the signal flow
graph.
• Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with the associated branches.

• Another way to arrange this graph is shown in

the figure.
 Terminologies
• An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1

• An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4

• A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along which no node is passed more than ones.
i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

• A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.

• A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and terminates on the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3

and back to X2 is a feedback path.

 Terminologies
• A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33 is a self loop.
• The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
• The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing a path. i.e. the gain of forwards
path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is A21A32A43
• The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the loop gain of the feedback loop
from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.

• Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if they have no nodes in common.
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are two forward path gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• There are four loops

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

• Nontouching loop gains;

 Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths.
e) Self loop.
f) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
g) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
 Input and output Nodes

a) Input node

b) Output node
(c) Forward Paths
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(d) Feedback Paths or Loops
(e) Self Loop(s)
(f) Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops
(g) Path Gains of the Forward Paths
 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
• The block diagram reduction technique requires successive application of fundamental
relationships in order to arrive at the system transfer function.
• On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow graph to a single transfer
function requires the application of one formula.
• The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the signal-flow graph to the
simultaneous equations that can be written from the graph.
 Mason’s Rule:
• The transfer function, C(s)/R(s), of a system represented by a signal-flow graph is;

n
 Pi  i
C (s )
 i 1
R(s ) 
Where

n = number of forward paths.

Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

• ∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function. Since ∆=0 is the system
characteristic equation.
 Mason’s Rule:
n
 Pi  i
C (s )
 i 1
R(s ) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of the gains of all possible two loops that
do not touch each other) – (sum of the products of the gains of all possible three loops that do not
touch each other) + … and so forth with sums of higher number of non-touching loop gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch the i-th forward path (Δ i = 1 if
there are no non-touching loops to the i-th path.)
 Systematic approach

 Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.

 Calculate all loop transfer functions
 Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time
 Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time
 etc
 Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
 Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i

190
 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system represented by
following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore, C P   P2  2
 1 1
R 
There are three feedback loops

L1 G1G4 H 1 , L2   G1G2 G4 H 2 , L3   G1G3G4 H 2

 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system represented by
following Signal Flow Graph

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

 1  L1  L2  L3 

 1  G1G4 H 1  G1G2 G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2 

 Example#1: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system represented by
following Signal Flow Graph

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
Example#1: Continue
 Example#2: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

2. Calculate all loop gains.

3. Consider two non-touching loops.

L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3

195
 Example#2: continue

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

 1  L1  L2  L3  L4   L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2 L4 

 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 
G2 H 2 G6 H 6  G2 H 2 G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

196
 Example#2: continue
Eliminate forward path-1

1 1  L3  L4 
1 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7 

Eliminate forward path-2

 2 1  L1  L2 
 2 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 

197
 Example#2: continue
Y (s ) P11  P2  2

R( s ) 

Y (s ) G1G2 G3G4 1  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G5G6 G7 G8 1  G2 H 2  G3 H 3 


R(s ) 1  G2 H 2  H 3G3  G6 H 6  G7 H 7   G2 H 2 G6 H 6  G2 H 2 G7 H 7  H 3G3G6 H 6  H 3G3G7 H 7 

198
 Example#3
• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow graph in figure below.
 Example#3
• There is only one forward Path.

P1 G1 (s )G2 (s )G3 (s )G4 (s )G5 (s )

 Example#3
• There are four feedback loops.
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.
 Example#3
• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.
 Example#3

Eliminate forward path-1

 Example#4: Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

3
 Pi  i
C (s ) P   P2  2  P3  3
 i 1  1 1
R(s )  
 Example#4: Forward Paths

P3  A42 A54 A65 A76

P1  A32 A43 A54 A65 A76 P2  A72

 Example#4: Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

L1  A32 A23
L5  A76 A67
L2  A43 A34 L9  A72 A57 A45 A34 A23
L6  A77
L3  A54 A45 L10  A72 A67 A56 A45 A34 A23
L7  A42 A34 A23
L4  A65 A56
L8  A65 A76 A67
 Example#4: two non-touching loops

L1 L3 L2 L4 L3 L5 L4 L6 L5 L7 L7 L8

L1 L4 L2 L5 L3 L6 L4 L7

L1 L5 L2 L6

L1 L6 L2 L8

L1 L8
Example#4: Three non-touching loops
 From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
H1

R(s) E(s) X1 － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－ X2
－
H2

H3

－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－ H2
－ H3
 From Block Diagram to Signal-Flow Graph Models
Example#5
－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－ H2

－ H3

 1  (G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1 )

P1 G1G2G3G4 ;  1 1

C ( s) G1G2G3G4
G 
R( s ) 1  G1G2G3G4 H 3  G2G3 H 2  G3G4 H 1
 Example#6
－
－ X1 G1 Y1
R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ － +
X2 G2
－ Y2

-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1

7 loops:

3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :
 Example#6
-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) -1 C(s)
1 X2 1 Y2 1
G2

-1 -1

Then: Δ 1  2G 2  4G1G 2
4 forward paths:
p1 (  1) G1 1 Δ1 1  G 2
p2 (  1) G1 (  1) G 2 1 Δ2 1
p3 1 G 2 1 Δ3 1  G1
p4 1 G 2 1 G1 1 Δ4 1
 Example#6

We have
C (s )  pk k

R( s ) 
G2  G1  2G1G2

1  2G2  4G1G2
 Example-7: Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below by signal flow graph
techniques.

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, hence • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2, therefore

 Example-6: Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below.

• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.

• The two forward path gains are

• The five feedback loop gains are

• There are no non-touching loops, hence

• All feedback loops touches the two forward paths, hence

• Hence the control ratio T =