IS 221

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

 Lecture 2 …

Sampling techniques and sample size determination

2
Objectives

— Learn the reasons for sampling

— Develop an understanding about different sampling
methods
— Distinguish between probability & non probability
sampling
— Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each
sampling methods
— list the factors influencing the sample size
— calculate the sample size using appropriate formulae

3
Sampling

 A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative)

collection of units from a population used to
determine truths about that population” .

 Why sample?

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Why sample?
• Cost in terms of money, time and manpower
• Accessibility
• Utility e.g. to do diagnostic laboratory test you don’t
draw the whole of patient’s blood.
A census is a sample consisting of the entire population.
Even though a census is not full proof, it gives detailed information about
every small area of the population.
It has the following disadvantages:
• Expensive
• Takes a long time
• Cumbersome & therefore inaccurately done ( a careful sample produces a more accurate data than a
census.)
5
Sampling…..
 Sampling is the process of selecting a
representative sample from populations.
 It is Selecting cases (elements)—or locating people (or other units
of analysis)—from a target population in order to study the
population.

sampling
Sample
Inference
Population

6
 Cont’d
 The process of obtaining information from a subset (sample) of a larger
group (population)
 The results for the sample are then used to make estimates of the larger
group
 Faster and cheaper than asking the entire population
 Two keys
1. Selecting the right population
 Have to be selected scientifically so that they are representative of the population

2. Selecting the right number of the right population

 To minimize sampling errors i.e. choosing the wrong population by chance
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 Population Vs. Sample

Population of Interest

Population
Sample
Sample

Parameter
Statistic
We measure the sample using statistics in order to draw
inferences about the population and its parameters.

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Characteristics of Good Samples
o Representation
• Sample surveys are almost never conducted for the purposes of
describing the particular sample under study. Rather they are
conducted for purposes of understanding the larger population from
which the sample was initially selected
• A great deal of work has been done over the years in developing
sampling methods that provide representative samples for the
general population.
E.g. In an ICT study on user satisfaction with a new software tool, the sample should include
users from different departments and varying levels of experience to accurately represent the entire
user base.
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Characteristics of Good Samples
• Adequate Size: The sample size is sufficiently large to provide reliable
and valid results.
• Randomness: Each member of the population has an equal chance of
being included in the sample
• Relevance: The sample is relevant to the research questions and
objectives.

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Characteristics of Good Samples

3 factors that influence sample representativeness

• Sampling procedure
• Sample size
• Participation (response)

When might you sample the entire population?

• When your population is very small
• When you have extensive resources
• When you don’t expect a very high response
o Accessible
o Low cost
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 Basic Terms

 population (also called source population or target population): is a group of

individuals persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for
measurement.

• It refers to the entire group of individuals or objects to which

researchers are interested in generalizing the conclusions.

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Basic term cont’d….

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 Basic Terms cont’d…

 Census: Obtained by collecting information about each member of a

population. Studying the whole population and requires a great deals
of time, money and energy.

 Sample survey: study sample and draw conclusions about populations.

It is cheaper in terms of cost, practical & convenient in terms of
technicalities, saves time & energy.

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 Basic Terms cont’d…
 Sampling Frame: is the list of people from which the sample is taken. It
is the list from which the potential respondents are drawn.

It should be comprehensive, complete and up-to-date.

Examples of sampling frame: Electoral Register; Postcode
Address File; telephone book and so on.
 Probability samples: With probability sampling methods, each population element
has a known (non-zero) chance of being chosen for the sample.

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 Basic term cont’d….

 Non-probability samples: With non-probability sampling methods, we do

not know the probability that each population element will be chosen,
and/or we cannot be sure that each population element has a non-zero
chance of being chosen
 Sampling unit - the unit of selection in the sampling process
 Study unit (study subjects)- the unit on which information is collected or
on which observations are made. E.g. Familiar examples are families,
towns, litters, branches of a company, individual subjects or schools.

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 Basic term cont’d….

• The sampling unit is not necessarily the same as the study unit.
• If the objective is to determine the availability of latrine, then the
study unit would be the household; or if it is lab equipment then study
unit is labs.
• If the objective is to determine the prevalence of trachoma, then the
study unit would be the individual.
Sampling fraction (Sampling interval) - the ratio of the number of units
in the sample to the number of units in the reference population (N/n)

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Hierarchy of sampling

Study subjects
The actual
participants in
the study

Sample
Subjects who are
selected

Sampling Frame
The list of potential subjects
from which the sample is
drawn

Source population
The Population from whom the study
subjects would be obtained

Target population
The population to whom the results would be
applied
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 Errors in statistical Study
A sample is expected to mirror the population from which it comes,
however, there is no guarantee that any sample will be precisely
representative of the population.
No sample is the exact mirror image of the population .

Sampling or Random

Errors
Non-sampling or systematic

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1. Sampling error

– random error- the sample selected is not representative of the

population due to chance
– The uncertainty associated with an estimate that is based on data
gathered from a sample of the population rather than the full
population is known as sampling error.
– Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample
estimates around the true population parameters.

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Sampling error cont’d…

the level of it is controlled by sample size

a larger sample size leads to a smaller sampling error.
It decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, and it happens to
be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.
When n = N ⇒ sampling error = 0

 Can not be avoided or totally eliminated

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 Sampling error cont’d…

why do sample estimates have uncertainty associated with them?

There are two reasons.
Estimates of characteristics from the sample data can
differ from those that would be obtained if the entire
population were surveyed.

Estimates from one subset or sample of the population can

differ from those based on a different sample from the
same population (sample to sample variations).
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 The cause of sampling error

Chance: main cause of sampling error and is the error that occurs just
because of bad luck.

Sampling bias: Sampling bias is a tendency to favor the selection of

participants that have particular characteristics.
The chance component (sometimes called random error) exists no matter
how carefully the selection procedures are implemented, and the only way to
minimize chance-sampling errors is to select a sufficiently large
sample.
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 2. Non Sampling Error

It is a type of systematic error in the design or conduct of a sampling

procedure which results in distortion of the sample, so that it is no longer
representative of the reference population.

We can eliminate or reduce the non-sampling error (bias) by careful design

of the sampling procedure and not by increasing the sample size.

It can occur whether the total study population or a sample is being used.

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Non-sampling Error……

o The basic types of non-sampling error

• Non-response error
• Response or data error
o A non-response error occurs when units selected as part of the
sampling procedure do not respond in whole or in part
• If non-respondents are not different from those that did respond,
there is no non-response error
• When non-respondents constitute a significant proportion of the
sample (about 15% or more)

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Non-sampling Error…….

oA response or data error is any systematic bias that occurs

during data collection, analysis or interpretation
• Respondent error (e.g., lying, forgetting, etc.)
• Interviewer bias
• Recording errors
• Poorly designed questionnaires

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 Non-Sampling Error cont’d …

Systematic error makes survey results unrepresentative of the target

population by distorting the survey estimates in one direction.

Random error can distort the results in any given direction but tend to
balance out on average
Thus, the total survey error

sampling error + non-sampling error

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 Advantage of sampling

We obtain a sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census ) of

the population for many reasons.
Feasibility it may be the only feasible method of collecting data
Reduced cost sampling reduces demands on resource such as
finance, personal and material
Greater accuracy sampling may lead to better accuracy of collecting
data.
Greater speed data can be collected and summarized more quickly

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 Disadvantage of Sampling

If sampling is biased, or not representative or too small the conclusion may

not be valid and reliable

If the population is very large and there are many sections and subsections,
the sampling procedure becomes very complicated

If the researcher does not possess the necessary skill and technical
knowledge in sampling procedure, then the outcome will be devastated.
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 Characteristics Of A Good Sample Design
From what has been stated above, we can list down the
characteristics of a good sample design as:
Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
Sample design must be such which results in a small
sampling error.
Sample design must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be
controlled in a better way.
Sample should be such that the results of the sample study
can be applied, in general, for the universe with a
reasonable level of confidence.

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 Types of Sampling

How we Select the right subjects/population

oThe sample that is drawn for the study determines the

generalizability of the findings.
oSample should to have a good representation of the
population.

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 Types of Sampling Methods

Sampling Method

Non-Probability Samples Probability Samples

Simple Stratified
Random
Quota
Judgemental
Systematic Cluster
Convenience
Multistage Random Sampling

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 Probability Sampling Method …

The random ("equal chance“) and "independent" components of random

sampling are what makes us confident that the sample has a reasonable
chance of representing the population

What does it mean to be independent? The researchers select each person for
the study separately.

Let us say you were asked to participate in an experiment, enjoyed it, and
told your friends to contact the researcher to volunteer for the study.

 This would be an example of non-independent sampling.

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 Probability Sampling Method cont’d …

In probability sampling
A sampling frame exists or can be compiled.
should have an equal or at least a known or nonzero chance of being
included in the sample.
Generalization is possible (from sample to population)
• Simple Random Sampling,
• Systematic Sampling,
• Stratified Random Sampling,
• Cluster Sampling
• Multistage Sampling. 34
 1. Simple Random Sampling(SRS)

Simple random sampling is the most straightforward of the random sampling

strategies.
A simple random sample is one in which each item in the total population
has an equal chance of being included in the sample. In addition, the
selection of one item for inclusion in the sample should in no way influence
the selection of another item
To use SRS there should be
o sampling frame for the population
1
o All possible samples of “n” subjects are equally likely ( ) to occur.
n
o population is small, relatively homogeneous & readily available

Homogeneous population comprises items that possess the same attributes

that the researcher is interested in
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 Simple Random Sampling
cont’d …
Procedures to select the sample
The specific procedures that you follow may vary depending on your resources,
but all involve some type of random process. Depending on the complexity of
the population, we can use different tools to select “n” samples from the given
sampling frame.
These are lottery method,
table of random number (they are available in the appendix of
many research methods and statistics textbooks) or computer
generated random number.

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 Simple Random Sampling
cont’d …

Lottery method is appropriate if the total population is not too large,

otherwise if the population is too large then it will be very difficult to
use lottery method.
Thus, table of random number or computer generated random number
is the feasible method to be used.
Sampling schemes may be
o without replacement- no element can be selected more than once in the same sample,
N  possible samples.
 
n 
 

o with replacement- an element may appear multiple times in the one sample possible
Nn
samples.

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 Example

Assume that the total number of patients who visit CIVE

Hospital for the last six months is “N”. We want to see the
prevalence of TB among those patients who visited the hospital.

Though the population is homogeneous,

there may not be available frame.

so
what?

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 2. Systematic Random Sampling

Systematic sampling is thought as random, as long as the periodic

interval is determined beforehand and the starting point is random
A method of selecting sample members from a larger population
according to a random starting point and a fixed, periodic interval.
Typically, every nth member is selected from the total population for
inclusion in the sample population.
It is frequently chosen by researchers for its simplicity and its periodic
quality.
it needs the population to be homogeneous, however the method does
not require frame.

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 Steps in systematic sampling:

Define the population

Determine the desired sample size (n)
List the population from 1 to N
Determine K, where k=N/n
Select a random number between 1 and k, let us denote this number by “a” Starting at a,
take every Kth number on the list until the desired sample is obtained.
Then the selected list will be
a, a+k, a+2k, a+3k, …, a+(n-1)k
Note: Systematic sampling should not be used when a cyclic repetition is inherent in
the sampling frame

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 E.g. systematic sampling

• N = 1200, and n = 60
sampling fraction = 1200/60 = 20
• List persons from 1 to 1200
• Randomly select a number between 1 and 20 (e.g. 8)
• 1st person selected = the 8th on the list
• 2nd person = 8 + 20 = 28th list e.t.c.

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 Systematic sampling ….
o It relies on arranging the target population according to some ordering
scheme and then selecting elements at regular intervals through that ordered
list.

o Systematic sampling involves a random start and then proceeds with the
selection of every kth element from then onwards. In this case, k
=(population size/sample size).
o It is important that the starting point is not automatically the first in the list,
but is instead randomly chosen from within the first to the kth element in the
list.
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• Though the frame available, the
population may not be homogeneous, so
what?

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 3. Stratified Random Sampling

Stratified random sampling is used when we have subgroups in our

population that are likely to differ substantially in their responses or
behavior (i.e. if the population is heterogeneous).

In stratified random sampling, the population is first divided into a number

of parts or 'strata' according to some characteristic, chosen to be related to
the major variables being studied.

For example, you are interested in visual-spatial reasoning and previous

research suggests that men and women will perform differently on these
types of task
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 3. Stratified Random Sampling

So, you divide your sample into male and female members and randomly
select the required sample size within each subgroup (or "stratum")

With this technique, you are guaranteed to have enough of each subgroup
for meaningful analysis.

Often we used simple random sampling to select a sample from each

strata after stratification.

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 3. Stratified Random Sampling

Steps involve in stratified sampling method:

Define the population
Determine the desired sample size
Identify the variable and subgroups (strata) for which you want to guarantee
appropriate representation (either proportional or equal)

Classify all members of the population as a member of one of the identified subgroups
Randomly select (using simple random sampling or others) an appropriate number of
individuals from each subgroup.

Then the total sample size will be the sum of all samples from each subgroup.

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 3. Stratified Random Sampling
There are two methods to get the study subject from each subgroup,
proportional allocation or
equal allocation.
We use proportional allocation technique when our subgroups vary dramatically in size
in our population
• Let N be total population and N1, N2 . . . . Nk be the subtotal population for strata 1, 2, ….
K respectively. Moreover let n be the total sample size and n1, n2…..nk be th subsample
for strata 1, 2…..k respectively in which N = N1 + N2 +….. …+ N K and n = n1 +
n2 + …………..+ nk
Then the subsample “ni “ which will be selected from subgroup Ni can be computed by
n  Ni
ni  where i 1, 2, 3........k
N

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The higher the population in the subgroup, the higher the sample
size will be.

However, equal allocation will be used if the total population from

each subgroup is approximately equal.

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Advantage of stratified sampling over simple random sampling

The representativeness of the sample is improved. That is, adequate

representation of minority subgroups of interest can be ensured by
stratification and by varying the sampling fraction between strata as
required.

DEMERIT
Sampling frame for the entire population has to be prepared separately
for each stratum.

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Proportional Allocation
• If Pi represents the proportion of population included in stratum i, and
n represents the total sample size, the number of elements selected
from stratum i is n

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 Example
• Suppose that a sample of size n = 30 is to be drawn from a population of
size N = 8000 which is divided into three strata of size N1 = 4000, N2 = 2400
and N3 = 1600.
• Adopting proportional allocation, we shall get the sample sizes as under for
the different strata:
• For strata with N1 = 4000, we have P1 = 4000/8000 and hence n1 = n . P1 = 30
(4000/8000) = 15
• Similarly, for strata with N2 = 2400, we have n2 = n . P2 = 30 (2400/8000) = 9,
• For strata with N3 = 1600, we have n3 = n . P3 = 30 (1600/8000) = 6
• Using proportional allocation, the sample sizes for different strata are 15, 9
and 6 respectively which is in proportion to the sizes of the strata viz.,
4000 : 2400 : 1600. 51
 4. Cluster Random
Sampling
In this sampling scheme, selection of the required sample is done on groups
of study units (clusters) instead of each study unit individually.
The sampling unit is a cluster, and the sampling frame is a list of these
clusters.
If the study covers wide geographical area, using the other methods will be
too costly.
The idea is, divide the total population in to different clusters and then the
unit of selection will be cluster.
Therefore, total population in the selected cluster will be taken as the sample.

52
 Steps in cluster sampling are:

Define the population

Determine the desired sample size
Identify and define a logical cluster (can be kebele, Got, residence, and so on)
Make a list of all clusters in the population
Estimate the average number of population number per cluster
Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the
estimated size of the cluster
Randomly select the required number of clusters (using table of random number as
the total number of clusters is manageable)
Include in the sample all population in the selected cluster.

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Consider the following graphical display:

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 5. Multistage Random Sampling

This is the most complex sampling strategy.

The researcher combines simpler sampling methods to address sampling
needs in the most effective way of possible.
Example 1,
The administrator might begin with a cluster sample of all schools in
the district.
Then he might set up a stratified sampling process within clusters.
Within schools, the administrator could conduct a simple random
sample of classes or grades.
By combining various methods, researchers achieve a rich variety of
results useful in different contexts.
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 Non-Probability Sampling Method

In the presence of constraints to use probability sampling strategies,

the alternative sampling method is non-probability sampling method.

Non-probability sampling strategies are used when it is practically

impossible to use probability sampling strategies.

Non-probability sampling is sampling procedure which does not afford

any basis for estimating the probability that each item in the population
has of being included in the sample.

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 Cont’d……….

Subjective units of population have a zero or unknown probability of selection before

drawing the as sample. Hence obtained a non-representative samples.
Sampling error can not be computed
Survey results cannot be projected to the population

Advantages
 Cheaper and faster than probability
 Reasonably representative if collected in a thorough manner

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 1. Judgment Sampling/ Purposive sampling

The researcher selects the sample based on judgment. A researcher

exerts some effort in selecting a sample that seems to be most
appropriate for the study.

This is used primarily when there is a limited number of people that

have expertise in the area being researched

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 2. Convenience Sampling

Convenience sampling selects a particular group of people but it does

not come close to sampling all of a population.

The sample would generalize only to similar programs in similar

cities.
It looks just like cluster sampling.
The major difference is that the clusters of research participants are
selected by convenience rather than by a random process.
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Cont’d………..

• Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or haphazard

sampling.

• A type of non probability sampling which involves the sample being drawn from
that part of the population which is close to hand. That is, readily available and
convenient.

• The researcher using such a sample cannot scientifically make generalizations about
the total population from this sample because it would not be representative enough.

• This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.

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 3. Quota sampling

It is a method that ensures a certain number of sample units from different

categories with specific characteristics are represented. The investigator
interviews as many people in each category of study unit as he can find
until he has filled his quota.
It is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. This differs from
stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-groups, just
as in stratified sampling.

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 Cont’d

• Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment

based on a specified proportion.

• For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and

300 males between the age of 45 and 60.

• It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-probability

sampling.

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Cont’d

• In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.

• For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those

who look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may
be biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection.

• This random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus

probability has been a matter of controversy for many years
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 4. Snowball sampling

It is a special non-probability method used when the desired

sample characteristic is rare.
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to
generate additional subjects.
What we need to do in case of snowball sampling is that first
identify someone who meets the criteria and then let him/her bring
the other he/she knew.

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Review Questions
• Why might a researcher choose non-probability sampling methods?
• How does judgment sampling differ from other non-probability
sampling methods?
• Why is convenience sampling not ideal for making generalizations
about a population?
• What is the major weakness of quota sampling compared to stratified
sampling?
• What are the advantages and disadvantages of using snowball
sampling?

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Cont’d

• While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the
expense of introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the
likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from the
population.

• Selection of additional respondents is based on referrals from the

initial respondents.
• friends of friends
• Used to sample from low incidence or rare populations.

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 Sample Size Determination

Determining the sample size for a study is a crucial component of study to

include sufficient numbers of subjects so that statistically significant results
can be detected.

"How large a sample do I need?“

The answer will depend on the aims, nature and scope of the study and on
the expected result. All of which should be carefully considered at the
planning stage.
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 Sample……
o If sample (“n”) is
 Large
 Increase
accuracy Optimum
 Costy / complex Take sample
 Small
o Decrease accuracy
o Less costy
How ?

68
Factors to determine sample size

• Size of population
• Resources – subjects, financial, manpower
• Method of Sampling- random, stratified
• Degree of difference to be detected
• Variability (S.D.) – pilot study, historical
• Degree of Accuracy (or errors)
- Type I error (alpha) p<0.05
- Type II error (beta) less than 0.2 (20%)
- Power of the test : more than 0.8 (80%)
• Statistical Formulae
• Dropout rate, non-compliance to Rx
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 o Sample size determination depending on outcome variables.

There are three possible categories of outcome variables.

• The first is where the variable of interest has only two alternatives
response: yes/no, dead/alive, vaccinated/not vaccinated and so on.
• The second category covers those outcome variable with multiple,
mutually exclusive alternatives responses, such as marital status,
religion, blood group and so on.
• For these two categories of outcome variables, the data are generally
express as percentages or rates.
• So we can use percentage to compute the sample size.

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• The third category covers continuous response variables such as birth
weight, age at first marriage, blood pressure and cerium uric acid level,
for which numerical measurement are usually made.

• In this case the data are summarize in the form of means and standard
deviations or their derivatives.

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 Sample Size………...

There are several approaches to determining the sample size.

Depending on the type of response variable, whether it is categorical

or continuous, we will have two sets of formulas.

The sample size determination formulas come from the formulas for
the maximum error of the estimates and is derived by solving for n.

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Sample for Single population

To estimate sample size for single survey using simple or systematic

random sampling, need to know:
oEstimate of the prevalence of the outcome
o Precision desired
o Design effect
o Size of total population
oLevel of confidence (always use 95%)

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 Sample size for single population mean

This is the condition in which the research question is about mean.

Standard deviation () of the population: It is rare that a researcher
knows the exact standard deviation of the population.
Typically, the standard deviation of the population is estimated:
from the results of a previous survey,
from a pilot study,
from secondary data,
from judgment of the researcher.

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Maximum acceptable difference (w): This is the maximum amount of error that
you are willing to accept.
Desired confidence level (Z/2 ) : is your level of certainty that the sample mean
does not differ from the true population mean by more than the maximum
acceptable difference. Commonly we use a 95% confidence level.
Then the sample size determination formula for single population mean is defined
by:

z22   2
n 
w2

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Sample size for single population mean cont’d…

 Where
• α= The level of significance which can be
obtain as 1-confidence level.
• σ=Standard deviation of the population
• w= Maximum acceptable difference
• z α/2 = The value under standard normal
table for the given value of confidence level

76
 Sample Size for Single Population Proportion

This is the situation in which the variable of interest is categorical.

Three questions must be answered to determine the sample size for
single population proportion:
Best estimate of population proportion of the variable of interest : Make
your best estimate of what the actual percent of the survey characteristic
is.
The possible source of this proportion are:
 from the results of a previous study,
item from a pilot study,
item judgment of the researcher.
item Simply taking 50%
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Then the formula for the sample size of single
population proportion is defined as:

z22 * p (1  p )
n
w2

Where α = the level of significance which can be obtained as 1-

confidence level.
P = best estimate of population proportions
z
W=2 maximum acceptable difference
the value under standard normal table for the given value of
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 Example 1

One of undergraduate student want to conduct a research on the prevalence of lab utilization
of students at CIVE. Given that the prevalence from the previous study found to be 45.7% ,
what will be the sample size he should take to address his objective?
Solution:
 Margin of error d= 5%
 A confidence level of 95% will give the value of as Zα/2=1.96.
 Then using the formula :

2 2
 Z  P (1  P )  Z 
 0.05  0.457 (1  0.457 )
n  2 
2
 2 

W 0.05 2


1.96  0.457(0.543)
2

0.05 2
382

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 Some Considerations

• The final sample size will be corrected for

 Nonresponse, lost to follow up, lack of compliance and so on
 Consider the total size of the population (N): if N <10000 then we need correction the
formula which is defined by
no
nf 
n
1 o
N

• Where nf = final sample size, no = sample size from the above formula and N total
population.
 Take the design effect in to account if needed

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 Incorrect sample size will lead to

o Wrong conclusions

o Poor quality research (Errors)

o Type II error can be minimized by increasing the sample size

o Waste of resources

o Loss of money

o Ethical problems

o Delay in completion
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Review Questions
• Why is determining the correct sample size important in research?
• What factors should be considered when determining sample size?
• What information is needed to estimate the sample size for a single
population survey?
• How is sample size calculated for categorical and continuous variables?
• How would you calculate the sample size for a study with a known
prevalence rate?
• What adjustments might be needed for nonresponse or dropout rates?

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 Example 2

HIS undergraduate student wants to do her Final Year Project work on

the title “assessment of the outcome of malaria among students who
visited CIVE hospital ward for the year 2020”
What will be the sample size she should take for this study?

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