1

CHAPTER-2

Phase Equilibria
Outline
 Introduction to intermolecular forces
 Phase diagram
 Phase rule
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Objectives
2

After this lesson the students are

expected to:
 Describe intermolecular forces
between molecules
 Discuss phase diagram
 Apply phase rule and its application
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Introduction to Intermolecular forces
3

The Forces Between Molecules

 All matter is held together by force
 The force between atoms within a
molecule is a chemical or Intramolecular
force
 The force between molecules is a physical
or intermolecular force
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont..
4

Intramolecular forces
 It is the force that holds the atoms or ions
together in a compound.
 Intramolecular forces are much stronger than
intermolecular forces.
 There are three main types of intramolecular
forces:
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Metallic bonding , Ionic bonding & Covalent
 Cont..
5

A. Metallic bonding
 Occurs when metal atoms bond to each other.
 Bond is characterized by delocalized electrons
being shared between atoms.
B. Ionic bonding
 unequal sharing or theft of an electron caused
by large differences in electronegativity.
 Ionic or electrostatic bond develops
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont…
6

 Ionic bonds are characterized by cations and anions

which are held together by electrostatic attraction or
forces.
 These forces (electrostatic forces) are responsible for
the extremely high melting and boiling points of ionic
compounds and metals.
 In ionic bonding, there is complete transfer of an
electron from a low to a high electronegative element.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
7

C. Covalent bonding
 If the difference between the electro negativities of
the two reacting elements is not large enough, no
electron theft occurs.
 Rather than theft, the atoms involved will share
electrons, resulting in the formation of a covalent
bond.
 characterized by sharing ofEquilibra
Phase electrons between two
07/16/2025
 Cont…
8

Intermolecular forces
 forces of attraction that exists between molecules in
a compound.
 Non-bonding
 These cause the compound to exist in a certain state
of matter: solid, liquid, or gas; and affect the
physicochemical properties of the cpd.
 The intermolecular forces are weaker
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
than
 The Forces Between Molecules
9

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Types of intermolecular forces
10

1. Dipole - Dipole attractions (Keesom forces)

 In some of covalently bonded molecules the electrons
may not be equally shared due to difference in their
electronegativity.
 The electrons spent most of their time around the
highly electronegative atom.
 This creates charge separation within the bond.
 This separation is known as a dipole.
 The molecule acts as it hasPhase
a positive and negative pole.
Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont..
11

 Molecules that possess a dipole moment are

polar molecules.
 Due to electrostatic attraction, dipolar molecules
tend to align themselves with neighboring
molecule so that the negative pole of one
molecule points towards the positive pole of the
next.
 This type of attractionPhase
(i.e. due07/16/2025
Equilibra to permanent
 Cont..
12

 H atom’s electron spends most of

its time around the chlorine &
oxygen atom.
 Polar covalent molecules act as
little magnets; they have positive
ends and negative ends which
attract each other.
 A strong dipole leads to high
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
intermolecular forces.
 Cont..
13

2. Dipole-induced dipole (Debye force)

 It shows the ability of a permanent dipole

to polarize charge in neighboring nonpolar

molecule.
Inductio
n

 Inductive forces arise from the distortion of

the charge cloud induced by the presence of
another molecule nearby.
 In Dipole-induced dipole intermolecular forces
permanent dipole induces a transit electric
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont..
14

3. Dipole-induced dipole/London forces

 In a symmetrical molecule like hydrogen, however, there doesn't
seem to be any electrical distortion to produce positive or negative
parts.
 But that's only true on average.

No
interaction
 Since the electrons are mobile, and at any one instant
they might find themselves towards one end of the
molecule, making that end δ−.
 The other end will be temporarily short of electrons
and so becomes δ+ Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont..
15

 An instant later the electrons may well have

moved up to the other end, reversing the
polarity of the molecule.

 This constant "sloshing around" of the

electrons in the molecule causes rapidly
fluctuating dipoles even in the most
symmetrical molecule.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
Temporary induced dipole
 Cont..
16

 How temporary dipoles give rise to

intermolecular attractions?
 Imagine a molecule which has a
temporary polarity being approached by
one which happens to be entirely non-
polar just at that moment.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
17

 As the right hand molecule approaches, its

electrons will tend to be attracted by the
slightly positive end of the left hand one &
this sets up an induced dipole in the
approaching molecule.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
18
 An instant later, the electrons in the left hand
molecule may well have moved up the other
end. In doing so, they will repel the electrons
in the right hand one.

 The polarity of both molecules reverses, but

you still have δ+ attracting δ-. As long as the
molecules stay close to each other the
polarities will continue to fluctuate in
synchronization so that the attraction is
always maintained. Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont..
19

 As long as the molecules are close together

this synchronized movement of the electrons
can occur over huge numbers of molecules.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
20

4. Hydrogen Bonding
 H-bonding is a special type of dipole - dipole attraction that is
very strong.
 When an electron is hogged by another atom in a polar
covalent bond, a significant fraction of the hydrogen nucleus
becomes uncovered and the bare nucleus desperately seeks
to be covered by electrons from other atoms.
 A proton interacting simultaneously with two atoms, which
have strong negative charges, will form a hydrogen bond.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont…
21

 These occur between polar covalent

molecules that possess hydrogen bonded to
an extremely electronegative element,
specifically - N, O, and F.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
22

 The high EN(electronegativity) of NH, OH,

and HF bonds cause these to be strong forces
(about 5x stronger than normal dipole-dipole
forces).
 With out hydrogen bonds this world would be
much different, as water would boil at a
temperature far below 0oc.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Cont..
23

5. Ion-dipole
 The ion charge interact with dipole

charge.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
24

6. Ion-induced dipole
 The ion charge interact with polarizable e-

cloud.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Summary of intermolecular forces
( kJ/mol)
25

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Intermolecular Forces and Physicochemical Properties

26

 The properties of matter result from the properties

of the individual molecule (resulting from
chemical bonding) and how the molecules act
collectively (resulting from intermolecular forces).
 The magnitude of the attraction between
molecules of any substance determines whether
that substance is a solid (strong attraction), liquid
(medium attraction), or gas (weak attraction).

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Cont..
27

 Determines physical properties like melting point,

boiling point, solubility, etc.
 The melting point of a compound is the
temperature at which a compound turns from a
solid to a liquid or a liquid to a solid.
 The boiling point of a compound is the
temperature at which a compound turns from a
liquid to a gas.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 The stronger the attractions between particles
 Phase equilibrium
28

 A phase is a homogenous, physically distinct and

mechanically separable portion of the material with a
given chemical composition and structure of components.
 The phase rule is an expression of the number of
variables that can be used to describe a system in
equilibrium.
 Component - chemically recognizable species

E.g. H2O and Sucrose solution in water

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Phase equilibrium…
29

Phase diagram shows the phase equilibria with respect to

pressure and temperature.
 They provide us with the knowledge of phase composition
and phase stability as a function of T, P & composition (C).
 It permit us to study and control important processes as:
 phase separation
 solidification
 purification of single crystals for technological and
other applications.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Phase equilibrium…
30

Phase Rule is concerned merely with those constituents

which take part in the state of equilibrium.
 State of matter which is uniform throughout not only

in chemical composition but also in physical state

 helps to characterize state of the system
 predict equilibrium relations of phases
 helps to construct phase diagrams

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Phase equilibrium…
31

 Information regarding phase equilibria can be predicted by a

simple rule (“Gibbs phase rule”):

f=c−p+2
 c -is the number of components

 p -is the number of phases present in the system.

 f, or variance is the degrees of freedom, gives the number of

variables (e.g., pressure, temperature, composition, etc.)

 that must be given to completely describe the system, or to

locate the state of the system

Phaseon the phase
Equilibra diagram.
07/16/2025
 Phase equilibrium…
32

Gas
No matter how many gases commix, there is


only one gas phase.

Solid
 Generally, one kind of solid has one phase
 No matter how evenly two solid powder
commix, they are still two phases.
 Solutions: one phase but what if it is saturated ?

Liquid
 Miscible liquids are one phase

 Immiscible liquids are two phase

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Phase equilibrium…
33

 Heterogeneous and homogeneous systems

 Systems with one phase are homogeneous

 Water, ice, water vapor, sugar dissolved in

water, gases in general, etc.
 Systems with more than one phase are
heterogeneous
 A cube of ice in water. (same chemical
compositions but different physical states)
 Oil-water mixture
Example: CaCO3(s) ↔CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 Phases: P = 2 solid + 1 gas = 3
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Phase equilibrium…
34

Components(C)
 The no of Cs is the minimum no of
independent chemical components
participating in the state of equilibrium
needed to form the system or to define all the
phases.
 The Cs of a system are not synonymous with

the chemical elements or compounds present.

 But only those constituents the
concentration of which can undergo
independent variation in 07/16/2025
Phase Equilibra the different
 Phase equilibrium…
35

 How many components are there when NaCl(s)

dissolved in H2O?
 + –
Available chemical constituents are: Na , Cl ,
NaCl and H2O
 Is it correct to say c = 4 ?
 + –
Because Na and Cl have the same amount
“equal neutrality” as NaCl, then c = 2 and not
4.
CaCO3(s)↔ CaO(s) + CO2(g)
 Available chemical constituents07/16/2025
are three.
Phase Equilibra
 Phase rule
36

 Degrees of freedom of a system (F): the no of the variable

factors, T, P, and Con. of the components, which must be
arbitrarily fixed in order to define the system.
 F is related to the number of components (C) and number

of phases(P).
F=C-P+2
 The digit 2 stands for the two variables, temperature and

pressure.
 Calculate the degree of freedom for (C = 3 - 1 = 2)

CaCO3 (s) ↔ CaO (s) + CO2 (g)

F=C–P+2=2–3+2=1
 Therefore only one variable, either temperature or
pressure, can be changed independently.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Phase rule for condensed system
37

 Solid/liquid systems are usually investigated at

constant P, and thus only two variables need to be
considered
– the vapor pressure for such systems can be neglected.
condensed system


 A condensed system will be represented by the

following modified phase rule equation: F = C – P +

1
 digit 2 is replaced by the digit 1, which stands for

temperature as variable.
 Depending on number of components: one, two or

Three component system

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 1. One component system,
water
38

 How many
components do you
have? One, H2O
 In the one-phase
regions, one can vary
either the
temperature, or the
pressure, or both
(within limits)
without crossing a
phase line.
 We say that in these
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
regions:
 One component system,
39
water…
 Along a phase line
we have two phases
in equilibrium with
each other, P=2
 If we want to stay on
a phase line, we
can't change the T
and P independently.
 We say that along a
phase line:
 f = c -p +2 = 1-
2+2= 1
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 One component system..
40
 At the triple point
there are three
phases in equilibrium,
but there is only one
point on the diagram
 where we can have
three phases in
equilibrium with each
other.
 We say that at the
triple point:
 f = c -p+2= 1-3+2= 0
 P= 4.58mmHg Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 One component system..
41

T3 T2 T1
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Critical point
42

 Thermodynamic
state in which
liquid and gas
phases can co-
exist in equilibrium
at the highest
possible T.
 Above this T, water
can not exist in the
liquid phase.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Summary for one component system
43

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 2. Two component system containing
liquid phases
44

 For two component systems, F = 2-P+2 = 4-P

 Four phases: invariant
 Two components in three phases:
univariant
 Two components in two phases: bivariant
 Two components existing in only one phase:

tervariant
 In addition to the P and T, therefore, a third
variable factor must be chosen.
 concentration of the components
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Two component system…
45

 Mixture of two liquid systems can be one of

the following:
 Miscible
 E.g. Ethyl alcohol and water
 Partially Miscible
 E.g. Phenol and water, Triethylamine and
water, Nicotine and water etc.
 Immiscible
 E.g. Mercury and water

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Two component system…
46

 In cases where partial miscibility occurs under

normal conditions the degree of miscibility is
usually dependent on the T.
 Dependency can described by means of phase
diagrams, which are graphs of T vs. Composition
at constant P.
 Pressure is kept constant in two component
system in order to represent the system in planar
form.
 The partially miscible systems may be divided into
the following types
 i.e. phenol rich and waterPhase
richEquilibra 07/16/2025
 Systems showing an increase in
miscibility with rise in temperature
47

Phenol and Water

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 miscibility with rise in temperature…
48
Upper consulate temperature (critical
solution)
 the maximum T at which two phase region

exists
 Line b-c drawn across the region containing

two phases is termed as tie line

 It is always parallel to the base line
 An important feature of two component system
 All system prepared on a tie line at equilibrium

will separate into phase of constant

composition.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 These phase are called conjugate phases
 miscibility with rise in
temperature…
49

 Tie line can be used to determine the weight and

composition of the phases.
 Lever rule
Weight of phase A Length of dc

Weight of phase B Length of bd
 water-rich phase A
 the phenol-rich phase B
 The lengths of dc and bd can be measured with a
ruler in centimeters or inches from the phase diagram.
 more convenient to use the units of percent weight of
phenol
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 miscibility with rise in
temperature…
50

 Example 1: at point d
 point d = 24%, b = 11%, c = 63%,
 the ratio of dc/bd =water-rich phase A/phenol-rich
phase B
phaseA c  d 63  24 39 3
   
phaseB d  b 24  11 13 1
 For every 10 g of a liquid system in
equilibrium at point d:
 Phase A = 7.5 g & Phase B = 2.5 g

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 miscibility with rise in
temperature…
51

 At point f =50%
fc 63  50 13 1
  
bf 50  11 39 3
 For every 10 g of system f
Phase A = 2.5 g & phase B = 7.5 g

ec 63  37 26
  1
be 37  11 26
 At Point e = 37 % Equal weight of phase A &
phase B Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 miscibility with rise in
temperature…
52

Example 2
If 24 g of phenol mixed with 76 g of water, warmed to 50 0C,
the mixture upon separation of the phases at equilibrium :
 Contains 25 g of phases A and 75 g of phase B
 Calculate the amount of both in each phase
At equilibrium phase A = 75 g & phase B = 25 g
 phase A contains 11 % phenol (11 x75/100=8.25g)
 Phase B contains 63 % phenol (63 x 25/100 =15.75g of
phenol)
 If you calculate the water part , you will find
 phase A contains 66.75g of water
 Phase B contains 9.25g of water
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Applications of binary mixtures
53

 The phase diagram is used in practice to formulate systems

containing more than one component
 where it may be advantageous to achieve a single liquid phase
product.

 The handling of solid phenol, a necrotic agent, is facilitated

in the pharmacy if a solution of phenol and water is used.
 A number of solutions, containing different concentrations of
phenol, are official in several pharmacopeias

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Applications of binary mixtures…
54

 If the temperature is given, the compositions of the two

phases are fixed by the points at the ends of the tie
lines, for example, points b and c at 50°C.
 The compositions (relative amounts of phenol and
water) of the two liquid layers are then calculated
 A number of other binary liquid systems are water-
aniline, carbon disulfide-methyl alcohol, isopentane-
phenol, methyl alcohol-cyclohexane and isobutyl
alcohol-water Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Applications of binary mixtures…
55

Example 3
 A mixture of phenol and water at 20° C has a

total composition of 50 % phenol. The tie line

at this temperature cuts the curve at points
equivalent to 8.4 and 72.2 per cent w/w
phenol.
 What is the weight of the aqueous layer and

of the phenol layer in 500 g of the mixture?

 How many g of phenol are present in each of

the two layers?

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Applications of binary mixtures…
56

Solution:
 Let Z be the weight in grams of the aqueous layer.

 (500- Z) is the weight in grams of the phenol layer.

 The sum of the percentages of phenol in the two layers

= 500 X 50/100 = 250 g

 Z (8.4/100) + (500 - Z)(72.2/100) = 250

 weight of aqueous layer Z = 174 g

 weight of phenol layer (500 - Z) = 326 g

 The weight of phenol in the aqueous layer 174 X
8.4/100 = 15 grams
 The weight of phenol in the phenolic layer 326 X
72.2/100 = 235 grams Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Applications of binary mixtures…
57

 At 50oC, the concentrations of phenol in the

water-rich phase and the phenol-rich phase
are 11 and 63% w/w (phenol/water),
respectively. Then a total of 120 g of a 35:65
w/w (phenol/water) is mixed.
 Calculate the amount of the phenol-rich and
water-rich phases?

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Applications of binary mixtures…
58

Solution:
Let the amount of water-rich phase be S.
Then the amount of phenol-rich phase is 120
– S. Take a mass balance of phenol: 120 g
x0.35 = S x 0.11 + (120 – S) x 0.63
 The weight of the water-rich phase = S = 120
x 0.28/ 0.52 = 64.62 g
 The weight of the phenol-rich phase = 120 –
64.62 = 55.38 g

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Applications of binary mixtures…
59

Aniline at b
is 8%
Aniline at Aniline at
c is 20% e is 90%

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 binary mixtures…
60

Systems showing a decrease in miscibility with rise

in T
 liquid mixture that shows no upper consolute
temperature but instead has a lower consolute
temperature below which the components are miscible
in all proportions.
 Below T the two liquids are miscible because they can
lc
form weak complexes (internal forces).
 As T increases, these weak complexes break up and

immiscible systems is being formed.

 Such systems should be stored in cool place.

 Example: triethylamine-water & paraldehyde- water

system. Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 binary mixtures…
61

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 binary mixtures…
62

Systems showing upper and lower critical

solution T
 Other systems show both an upper and lower
consolute temperatures.
 Such systems are known as closed miscibility loops.
Example; nicotine-water system
 After the weak complexes have been disrupted, they
show partial miscibility.
 The thermal motion at higher temperatures
homogenizes the mixture again.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 binary mixtures…
63

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 binary mixtures…
64

Two-Component Systems Containing Solid and

liquid Phases: Eutectic Mixtures:
 The two components are completely miscible in the

liquid state and completely immiscible as solids, i.e.

the solid phases consist of pure components. E.g.
salol-thymol and salol-camphor.

 The phase diagram for the salol-thymol system :

60%W/W thymol in Salol heated to 500C
i. a single liquid phase > 290C
ii. solid salol and a conjugate liquid phase 25 - 15 0C
iii. solid thymol is in equilibrium with a conjugate liquid
phase at 10 0C Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
iv. both Components are present as pure solid phases <
 binary mixtures…
65

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 binary mixtures…
66

 At 250 C, system x is composed of a liquid phase, a1

(composition 53% thymol in salol) and pure solid
thymol, b1
 The weight ratio of a1 to b1is
 (100 - 60)/(60 - 53) = 40/7 = 6.71:1
 When the temperature is reduced to 200 C the
composition of the liquid phase is a2 (45% by weight
of thymol in salol), while the solid phase is still pure
thymol, b2
 The phase ratio, a2 : b2 = (100 ­ 60)/(60 - 45) =
40/16 = 2.67:1.
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 At 15 C the composion of the liquid phase 37%
0
 binary mixtures…
67

 Below 130 C, the liquid phase disappears altogether

and the system contains two solid phases of pure
salol and pure thymol.
 Thus, at 100 C, the system contains an equilibrium
mixture of pure solid salol (a4) and pure solid thymol
(b4)
 ratio of (100 - 60)/(60 - 0) = 40/60= 0.67:1
 As system x is progressively cooled, the results
indicate that more and more of the thymol separates
as solid
 At the eutectic point, three phases (liquid, solid salol,
and solid thymol) coexist.Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Applications of binary Eutectic
Mixtures
68

Solid Dispersions
 facilitating the dissolution, and frequently, therefore,

the bioavailability, of poorly soluble drugs when

combined with freely soluble "carriers" such as urea.
 This increase in dissolution rate is achieved by a

combination of effects, the most significant of

which is reduction of particle size
 increased wettability of the material, reduced

aggregation and agglomeration, and a likely

increase in solubility of the drug owing to the
presence of the water soluble carrier.
Solid Solution: in which each solid phase contains
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
both components
 Three-component system (Ternary
system)
69

 The addition of a third liquid to a binary liquid

system produce a ternary or three-
component system.
 The mutual solubility of the original pair will
be decreased If the third liquid is
 soluble in only one of the two original
liquids or
 its solubility in the two original liquids is
markedly different.
 The addition of a liquid having roughly the same
solubility in both components of the07/16/2025
Phase Equilibra original pair will
result in an increase in their mutual solubility.
 Tertiary system…
70

 In systems containing three component but

only one phase
F= 3-1+ 2= 4
 The four degrees of freedom:
 P, T, the concentration of two of the three
components.
 If we regard the system as condensed
system(p constant) and hold the T constant
→ F=2
 Planar diagram to illustrate the phase
equilibria. Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Rules of triangular diagrams
71

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025

 Rules of triangular diagrams
72

1. Each side of the triangle represent 0% of one of

the components and the apex opposite that side
represent 100% of that component.
 A point on one of the sides of the triangle will give

the composition of a mixture in which only two

components are present.
 while a point within the triangle will represent the

composition of a ternary mixture.

 If line is drawn through the apex to a point on the

opposite side, all systems represented by points

on such a line have a constant ratio of two
components. Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 Rules of triangular diagrams…
73

 Any line drawn parallel to one side of the triangle

represent ternary system in which the proportion of
one component is constant.
 Every point within the triangle has the property that
the sum of the perpendiculars from that point on the
sides of the triangle is equal to unity (the height of
the triangle).
 The composition of a ternary mixture can be represented by
fixing a point within the triangle such that the lengths of the
perpendiculars from the point to the sides of the triangle are
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
equal respectively to the fractional amounts of the three
 Rules of triangular diagrams…
74

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 Tertiary system…
75

Line DC: points on such a line have a constant ratio of

two components, A and B.
 Furthermore, the continual addition of C to a mixture

of A and B will produce systems that lie

progressively closer to apex C (100% of component
C)
 Note that in all three systems, the ratio of A to B is
constant and identical to that existing in the original
mixture
Line HI
 Represents ternary systems in which the proportion

of one component is constant.

Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
 In this instance, all systems prepared along HI will
 Tertiary system…
76

Effect of adding a third component (C) to a binary

systems containing A (5.0 g) and B (15.0g)

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 Tertiary system…
77

 If the 3rd component is soluble in only one of the two

original liquids
 Mutual solubility of binary system will be
decreased
 alcohol + castor oil , water 3rd component
(soluble in alcohol)
 If the 3rd component has roughly the same solubility
in both components, therefore mutual solubility will
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025
be increased
 Tertiary system…
78

 Tertiary system a acetic acid ,butanol & water

contains one pair of partially miscible liquids.
 Water and butanol are miscible only to a slight
extent and so a mixture of the two produces a two
phase system,
 alcohol is completely miscible with both benzene
and water
 the addition of alcoholPhase
to a two produce a single
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 Applications tertiary system
79

 Application of three component system diagram

 Surfactant/oil/water system
 Flavor/water/alcohol system
 Drug/water/propylene glycol system
 The pharmacist can pick any combination from
the region miscible depending on safety,
efficacy, stability or cost.
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80

Thank you
Phase Equilibra 07/16/2025