Digital

Communications
Sampling, Quantizing and Binary
Data Representation

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 Sampling,
Quantizing &
Sampling Theorem

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A. Sampling of Continuous
Signal:
 A simplified block diagram of a digital signal
processing (DSP) system.

 The analog filter processes the analog input to

obtain the band-limited signal, which is sent to the
analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) unit.
 The ADC unit samples the analog signal,
quantizes the sampled signal, and encodes the
quantized signal level to the digital signal.
A. Sampling of Continuous
Signal:
 Display of the analog (continuous) signal and the digital
samples versus the sampling time instants.

 Analog signal contains an infinite number of points.

 It is impossible to digitize an infinite number of points.
 The infinite points cannot be processed by the digital signal
(DS) processor or computer, since they require an infinite
amount of memory and infinite amount of processing power
for computations.
 Sampling can solve such a problem by taking samples
A. Sampling of Continuous
Signal:
 Sample-and-hold analog voltage for ADC.

 Each sample maintains its voltage level during the

sampling interval T to give the ADC enough time to
convert it.
 This process is called sample and hold.
 Since there exits one amplitude level for each sampling
interval, we can sketch each sample amplitude level at
its corresponding sampling time instant
B. ADC and DAC
 Basic parts of Analog to Digital converter

 Sampling
the conversion of a continuous-time signal in to a
discrete-time signal obtained by taking samples of
continuous time signal at discrete-time instant.
Thus, if xa(t) is the input to the sampler, the output is xa
(nT) = x(n), where T is called the sampling interval.
B. ADC and DAC
 Basic parts of Analog to Digital converter

 This is the conversion of a discrete-time continuous-

valued signal in to a discrete-time, discrete-valued
(digital) signal.
 The value of each signal sample is represented by a value
selected from a finite set of possible values.
 The difference between the unquantized sample x(n) and
the quantized output xq(n) is called the quantization error.
B. ADC and DAC
 Basic parts of Analog to Digital converter

Coding.
 In the coding process, each discrete value xq(n) is
represented by a 6-bit binary sequence.
 NOTE: Components of PCM encoder

4.9
 Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• Bandpass Filter – limits the freq of analog input

signal to std voice-band freq range 300Hz to 3000
hz.
 Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• Sample and Hold Circuit – periodically samples the

analog input signal and converts those sample to a
multilevel PAM signal.
 Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• ADC – converts the PAM samples to parallel PCM

codes
Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• Parallel to Serial Converter – PCM codes are

converted to serial binary data & then outputted onto
the transmission line as serial digital pulses.
Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• Serial-Parallel-Converter – converts serial pulses

to parallel PCM codes
Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• DAC – converts the parallel PCM codes to multilevel

PAM signals
Block Diagram of Single-Channel, Simplex PCM System

• Hold Circuit – is basically a low-pass filter that

converts the PAM signals back to its original analog
form. (low-pass filter –allow only low frequency to
Sampling
 The process of transmitting signals in the form of
pulses (discontinuous signals) by using special
techniques.
 The signal is sampled at regular intervals such that
each sample is proportional to the amplitude of signal
at that instant. This technique is called “sampling”.
 Sampling is common in all pulse modulation
techniques.

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Sampling

Analog signal is sampled every TS secs.

Ts is referred to as the sampling interval.
fs = 1/Ts is called the sampling rate or sampling
frequency.

There are 3 sampling methods:

Ideal - an impulse at each sampling instant
Natural - a pulse of short width with varying
amplitude
Flat top - sample and hold, like natural but with single
amplitude value
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Sampling
 Sampling rate is at least twice of the highest
frequency component of the signal.
 In practice, sampling frequency should be
greater than twice the maximum frequency to
be transmitted.
 A process of approximation of an analog
quantity.
 Sampling must be done at regular intervals
and must cover most of the data, at least
twice the bandwidth frequency, to have an
accurate depiction of the whole data.
A phenomenon of ‘Aliasing’
(misrepresentation) if not enough samples are
taken to represent the whole population.
 Sampling Rate
Nyquist showed that it is possible to reconstruct a
band-limited signal from periodic samples, as long
as the sampling rate is at least twice the
frequency of the of highest frequency component
of the signal
i.e. fs ≥ 2fm
where fs is sampling rate
Sampling rates that are too low result in aliasing or
foldover
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 Sampling

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 Sampling
Sampling alone is not a digital technique
The immediate result of sampling is a pulse-
amplitude modulation (PAM) signal
PAM is an analog scheme in which the amplitude of
the pulse is proportional to the amplitude of the
signal at the instant of sampling
Another analog pulse-forming technique is known
as pulse-duration modulation (PDM). This is also
known as pulse-width modulation (PWM)
Pulse-position modulation is closely related to
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 Three different sampling methods for
PCM

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Natural & Flat-topped
Sampling
The simplest type of sampling, Natural
Sampling. The incoming analog signal is low-
pass filtered and then multiplied by pulse train.

In Flat-topped Sampling, a sample & hold

circuit can be used to keep the pulse amplitude
constant for the duration of the pulse.
2 Basic Techniques of PCM Sampling
1. Natural Sampling
 the sample pulses retain their natural shape
during sample interval, making it difficult for an
ADC to convert sample to a PCM code.
2 Basic Techniques of PCM Sampling
1. Natural Sampling
 The switch is closed for the duration of each pulse
allowing the message signal at that sampling time
to become part of the output.

 The switch is open for the remainder of each

sampling period making the output zero.
Aliasing
Sampling rate that is too low is called aliasing
or foldover distortion.
Once aliasing is present it cannot be removed.
Signal loss may occur due to aliasing effect.

Aliasing is the phenomena in which a high

frequency component in the frequency
spectrum of a signal takes identity of a lower
frequency component in the same spectrum of
the sampled signal.
2 Basic Techniques of PCM Sampling
2. Flat-top Sampling
 The most common method used for sampling voice
signals in PCM system w/c is accomplished in a sample-
and-hold circuit

 ( the purpose is to periodically sample the continually

changing analog input voltage & convert those samples
to series of constant amplitude PAM voltage levels).
2 Basic Techniques of PCM Sampling
2. Flat-top Sampling
 For flat-top sampling, a sample-and-hold circuit is
used in conjunction with the chopper to hold the
amplitude of each pulse at a constant level during
the sampling time
C. Sampling of Analog
Signals
 Since the highest frequency in a discrete-time signal is
Ω = π or f = ½, it follows that, w/ a sampling rate Fs,
the corresponding highest values of F and Ω are
C. Sampling of Analog
Signals
 Recall…
 Sampling Theorem: (Nyquist Theorem)
If the highest frequency contained in analog signal x(t) is
fmax and the signal is sampled at a rates fs≥2fmax then
x(t) can be exactly recovered from its sample values.
Example:
 Speech BW:0 – 7 kHz = Fs ______________
 Telephone: 0 – 4 kHz = Fs ______________
 Music: 0 – 22 kHz = Fs ______________
 Fmin = 10 kHz
Fmax = 25 kHz
fs = ________________
QUANTIZATION
 By quantizing the PAM pulse, original signal is only
approximated
 The process of converting analog signals to PCM is
called quantizing
 Since the original signal can have an infinite number
of signal levels, the quantizing process will produce
errors called quantizing errors or quantizing noise

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 Coding and Decoding
 The process of converting an analog signal into PCM
is called coding, the inverse operation is called
decoding
 Both procedures are accomplished in a CODEC
C. Quantization of Continuous-
Amplitude Signal
Quantization
 the process of converting a discrete-time continuous-
amplitude signal into a digital signal by expressing
each sample value as a finite (instead of infinite) no.
of digits.

Where:
 xq (n) = Sequence of Quantized Samples
 Q [x(n)] = Quantizer Operation
C. Quantization of Continuous-
Amplitude Signal
Example:
 Let us consider the discrete time signals

 Obtained by sampling analog exponential signal

with Fs = 1 Hz.
 UNIFORM QUANTIZATION

Simplest

Most popular

Conceptually, of great importance

 UNIFORM QUANTIZATION
Two features:
1. Except possibly the right-most and leftmost
intervals, all intervals (decision levels) along the x-axis
are uniformly spaced.
2. Except possibly the outer intervals, the
reconstruction levels of the quantizer are also
uniformly spaced.

Furthermore, each inner reconstruction level is the

arithmetic average of the two decision levels of the
corresponding interval along the x-axis.
QUANTIZATION

Two types of quantization: a) MIDTREAD; b) MIDRISE

MIDTREAD & MIDRISE
MIDTREAD QUANTIZER, Usually utilized for
an odd number of reconstruction levels

MIDRISE QUANTIZER, The reconstructed

levels do not include the value of zero.
Usually utilized for an even number of
reconstruction levels
C. Quantization of Continuous-
Amplitude Signal
C. Quantization of Continuous-
Amplitude Signal
Quantization
Quantization and encoding of a sampled
signal
Quantization Error
When a signal is quantized, we introduce an error - the
coded signal is an approximation of the actual
amplitude value.
The difference between actual and coded value
(midpoint) is referred to as the quantization error.
The more zones, the smaller  which results in smaller
errors.
BUT, the more zones the more bits required to encode
the samples -> higher bit rate
Quantization Error (cont.)
 Round-off error
 Overload error

Overload
Quantization Noise

Illustration of the quantization process

QUANTIZING ERRORS
The largest possible error is one half the difference
between levels.
The error is proportionately greater for small signals.
The level of quantizing noise can be decrease by
increasing the number of levels, which also increase
the number of bits per sample.

Dynamic Range is the ratio of the strongest possible

signal that can be transmitted and the weakest
discernable signal.
The maximum DR in dB for a linear PCM can be
approximated by,
C. Quantization of Continuous-
Amplitude Signal

Quantization Error or Quantization Noise – eq(n)

 Error introduced in representing continuous-valued
signal by a finite set of discrete value levels.

 Difference between the quantized value and the actual

sample value.
SYNCHRONIZATION
Required at a number of different levels in digital
communications system:
1. Network Synchronization-required so that
stations sharing a network can transmit and
receive in an orderly manner.
2. Frame Synchronization-required to keep track of
the individual channels in a TDM system.
3. Codeword and Node Synchronization-required to
keep track of blocks of bits in a bit stream,
where each block forms a codeword, usually
designed for the purpose of error control.
SYNCHRONIZATION
4. Symbol Synchronization-required in order that
symbols, which may be hidden in a noisy
waveform, are sampled at the optimum time.
5. Carrier Synchronization-required in order to
demodulate a carrier modulated wave in the
most efficient manner.
BINARY DATA REPRESENTATION:

Two Types of Binary Data

Representation:

1. Return-to-Zero (RZ) -
Signals drop to zero and
require full bandwidth

2. Non Return-to-Zero -
Signals do not drop to zero
and require only half of the
bandwidth
BINARY DATA REPRESENTATION:

Two Types of Signal Characteristics:

1. Unipolar Signal - Signal

amplitude varies between
+V and 0V.

2. Bipolar Signal - Signal

amplitude varies between
+V and –V.
BINARY DATA REPRESENTATION:
Binary Data Waveforms:
• Unipolar Non Return-to-Zero (UPNRZ)

• Bipolar Non Return-to-Zero (BPNRZ)

BINARY DATA REPRESENTATION:
Binary Data Waveforms:
• Unipolar Return-to-Zero (UPRZ)

• Bipolar Return-to-Zero (BPRZ)

BINARY DATA REPRESENTATION:
Binary Data Waveforms:
• Bipolar Return-to-Zero – Alternate Mark
Inversion (BPRZ - AMI)

• Digital Bi-phase/ Di-phase/ Manchester/ Split-

phase
END OF PRESENTATION
( THANK YOU)

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