Storing cheese

 Check date
stamp.
 Wrap or put in
plastic box.
 Refrigerate.
 Remove from
fridge 1 hour
before eating.
 Grate hard cheese
into jar and use
for melting.
 Raw material quality
Milk exposed to high heat treatment must be of very
good quality. It is particularly important that the
proteins in the raw milk do not cause thermal
instability. The heat stability of the proteins can be
quickly determined by an alcohol test. When samples
of the milk are mixed with equal volumes of an ethyl
alcohol solution the proteins are instable and the milk
flocculates at a certain concentration. The higher the
concentration of ethyl alcohol solution is without
flocculation, the better the heat stability of the milk.
Production and shelf life problems can usually be
avoided if the milk remains stable at an alcohol
concentration of 75%.
DAIRY PROCESSING
Milk is a valuable nutritious food that, if
untreated, will spoil within a few hours .
However, there are a number of
preservation techniques that can be used
at a small scale to extend its shelf life by
several days, weeks or months. Some of
these processing methods also produce
foods that have different flavours and
textures, which can increase the value of
the milk when these products are sold.
This Technical Brief gives an overview of
the types of dairy processing that are
possible at a small scale of operation.
Details of the individual processing
methods are given in other Technical
Briefs in this series: Pasteurised milk;
Butter and ghee; Soured milk and
yoghurt; Cheese-making; Ice cream
production and Dairy confectionery.
Other methods of milk processing,
such as making dried milk powder,
sterilised milk (Ultra-High-Temperature
or ‘long-life’ milk and bottled sterilised
milk), canned (evaporated or
condensed) milk, or milk by-products
such as casein, are not possible at a
small scale because of the very high
costs of equipment and the specialist
technical knowledge required.
Spoilage, food poisoning and
preservation
Milk is not only nutritious for people, but also
for bacteria. Because milk is a low-acid food,
bacteria are able to grow in it and contaminate
any products that are made from it. If milk is
not properly processed or if it is contaminated
after processing, bacteria can change the
flavour, texture or colour of dairy products, to
spoil them and make them unacceptable for
sale. Other dangerous bacteria can grow in milk
and cause food poisoning.
Emulsion: a suspension of
droplets of one liquid in
another. Milk is an emulsion of
fat in water, butter an emulsion
of water in fat. The finely
divided liquid is known as the
dispersed phase and the other
as the continuous phase.
All types of dairy processing therefore need
careful control over the processing
conditions and good hygiene precautions to
make sure that products are both safe to eat
and have the required shelf life. Processors
must pay strict attention to hygiene and
sanitation rules throughout the process,
from milking the animal to final sale of
products. These are described below and
also in Technical Brief: Hygiene and safety
rules in food processing.
 Mobility of bacteria
Some cocci and many bacilli are capable of
moving in a liquid nutrient medium. They
propel themselves with the help of flagella,
which are like long appendages growing out of
the cytoplasmic membrane, figure 4.5. The
length and number of flagella vary from one
type of bacterium to another. The bacteria
generally move at speeds of between 1 and 10
times their own length per second. The cholera
bacterium is probably one of the fastest; it can
travel 30 times its length per second.
 Processing
Cow’s milk is popular, but milk from goats,
horses, camels and sheep is important in some
areas. A dairy that produces short shelf-life dairy
products may be located close to consumers in
urban centers, whereas one producing longer
shelf-life products may be in a rural area, closer
to milk sources: it is cheaper and less risky to
transport products than fresh milk.
 Facilities & Equipment
A processing room should be
hygienically designed, with tiled walls
and floors that are easily cleaned and
a ripening cellar if hard cheese is
produced. Incoming milk and dairy
products should be stored in separate
refrigerators or cold rooms.
There should be an adequate supply of
potable water, free from micro-organisms,
chemicals and other particles that can
contaminate the product. The processing
room and equipment should be thoroughly
cleaned and sanitized after production.
Dairy effluents are highly polluting and
processors should ensure that effluent
disposal meets local regulations.
General dairy equipment includes milk
churns, filters for incoming milk,
measuring jugs or scoops for ingredients,
weighing scales, a lactometer, an
electronic pH meter and an electronic
thermometer. Ideally, all dairy
equipment should be stainless steel, but
cheaper alternatives may include
polished aluminium, or for containers
and equipment that are not heated,
food-grade plastic.
 Product handling

All milks have low acidity and a high nutrient

content, which can allow the growth of
bacteria that spoil milk and/or cause food
poisoning. To prevent this, milk is processed
by heat treatment (pasteurisation or boiling)
or by increasing the acidity to produce
yoghurt, cultured milks or cheese.
Principles of preservation and methods
of processing
The principle of preservation is the
destruction of pathogenic and most spoilage
bacteria and inactivation of most enzymes by
heat during pasteurization at 63°C for 30
minutes. This time and temperature
combination is described by regulations in
some countries and should be carefully
adhered to.
• PASTEURIZATION: The terms
"pasteurization", "pasteurized" and
similar terms shall mean the process of
heating every particle of milk or milk
product, in properly designed and
operated equipment, to one (1) of the
temperatures given in the following chart
and held continuously at or above that
temperature for at least the
corresponding specified time:
• Milk is immediately filtered, by use of filtering
pads, soon after milking.

• A surface cooler is used to cool the milk to

stop further multiplication of micro-organisms
in milk.
Use batch pasteurizer. Control of
temperature and time is very important
for correct pasteurization to give
expected shelf life. The vessel to be used
should be fabricated from stainless steel
or aluminum or bought locally from
hardware shops. Milk should be heated
with constant stirring to prevent the
product overheating/burning at the
bottom.
Cool quickly to temperature below
10°C. Cooling is done by placing the
pan containing the hot product into
another vessel which contains cold
water. The product is stirred
continuously until the temperature
drops.
Pack into sterilized bottles and seal
with sterile lids using a small filling and
capping machine.
Storage should be in either a cooler or
a refrigerator at below 10°C. The milk
should not be exposed to sunlight as
this will heat it, promote rancidity of
milk fat and destroy the vitamin
riboflavin.
The transportation of milk from
the storage room to the market
should be in a refrigerated
vehicle if the distance to be
covered is long. But for a short
distance which takes less than
an hours drive, refrigeration is
not necessary.
• Abnormal Milk: Milk that is visibly changed in
color, odor and/or texture.
• Undesirable Milk: Milk that, prior to the milking
of the animal, is expected to be unsuitable for
sale, such as milk containing colostrum.
• Contaminated Milk: Milk that is un-saleable or
unfit for human consumption following
treatment of the animal with veterinary
products, i.e. antibiotics, which have withhold
requirements, or treatment with medicines or
insecticides not approved for use on dairy
animals by the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA).
• ASEPTIC PROCESSING: The term “Aseptic
Processing”, when used to describe a milk
product, means that the product has been
subjected to sufficient heat processing and
packaged in a hermetically sealed container,
to conform to the applicable requirements
of 21 CFR Part 113 (Refer to the Reference
in Appendix L.) and the provisions of
Section 7, Item 16p of this Ordinance, and
to maintain the commercial sterility of the
product under normal non-refrigerated
conditions.
AUTOMATIC MILKING INSTALLATION (AMI): The
term automatic milking installation covers the
entire installation of one (1) or more automatic
milking units, including the hardware and software
utilized in the operation of individual automatic
milking units, the animal selection system, the
automatic milking machine, the milk cooling
system, the system for cleaning and sanitizing the
automatic milking unit, the teat cleaning system,
and the alarm systems associated with the process
of milking, cooling, cleaning and sanitation.
BULK MILK HAULER/SAMPLER: A bulk milk
hauler/sampler is any person who collects
official samples and may transport raw milk
from a farm and/or raw milk products to or
from a milk plant, receiving station or transfer
station and has in their possession a permit
from any State to sample such products.
• BULK MILK PICKUP TANKER: A bulk
milk pickup tanker is a vehicle,
including the truck, tank and those
appurtenances necessary for its use,
used by a bulk milk hauler/sampler to
transport bulk raw milk for
pasteurization from a dairy farm to a
milk plant, receiving station, or
transfer station.
 Long life milk
• Sterilising a product means exposing it to
such powerful heat treatment that all
micro-organisms and heat-resistant
enzymes are inactivated. Sterilised
products have excellent keeping qualities
and can be stored for long periods of time
at ambient temperatures. Many dairies can
therefore distribute sterilised products
over long distances and thereby find new
markets.
With a product that can be stored for long
periods without spoiling and with no need
for refrigeration, there are many advantages
for both the producer, the retailer and the
consumer. The producer can for example
reach geographically wider markets, simplify
deliveries, use fewer and cheaper
distribution vehicles and eliminate return of
unsold products.
• The alcohol test is typically used to reject all milk which is
unsuitable for UHT treatment because:
• it is sour, due to high bacterial count of acid producing
micro-organisms
• it has the wrong salt balance,
• it contains too much serum proteins – typical of
colostrum.
Raw milk of bad quality has an adverse effect on both
processing conditions and on the final product quality. Sour
milk has poor thermal stability and causes both processing
problem and sedimentation, e.g. burning-on. the heating
surfaces resulting in short running times and difficulties
with cleaning as well as sedimentation of proteins on the
bottom of the packages during storage.
Milk stored for long time at low temperature may
contain high numbers of Psychrotrophic
bacteria which can produce heat-resistant
enzymes which are not completely inactivated
by sterilisation. During storage they can cause
taste changes such as rancidity, bitterness or
even gelation problems (age-thickening or
sweet curdling). The bacteriological quality of
the milk must be high. This applies not only to
the total bacteria count but also, and even
more important, to the spore count of spore-
forming bacteria which influence the rate of
unsterility.
 • Sterilising efficiency
• When micro-organisms and/or bacterial spores are
subjected to heat treatment or any other kind of
sterilising/disinfectant procedure, not all
microorganisms are killed at once. Instead, a certain
proportion is destroyed in a given period of time
while the remainder survives. If the surviving
microorganisms are once more subjected to the
same treatment for the same length of time, an
equal proportion of them will be killed, and so on. In
other words, a given exposure to sterilising or
disinfectant agents always kills the same proportion
of micro-organisms present, however many or few
they may be.
Obviously, the sterilising effect depends upon:
• The time/temperature combination,
• The heat resistance of the test spores, which in
turn is influenced by the Bacillus strain used
and the way the spores were produced,
• The product in which the heat treatment is
taking place.
The lethal effect on bacterial spores starts at a
temperature around 115°C and increases very
rapidly with rising temperature.
Bacteria can be divided into two groups:
1. Those existing as vegetative cells only
(easy to kill by heat or other means).
2. Those existing in a vegetative state and
as spores as well, i.e. spore-forming
bacteria.
While these bacteria are easily killed as
long as they are in the vegetative state,
their spores are difficult to eliminate.
 Chemical and bacteriological changes at high heat
Treatment
When milk is kept at a high temperature for a long time,
certain chemical reaction products are formed, which
results in discoloration (browning). It also acquires a
cooked and caramel flavour, and there is occasionally a
great deal of sediment. These defects are largely
avoided by heat treatment at a higher temperature for a
shorter time. It is important that the time/ temperature
combination is chosen so that the spore destruction is
satisfactory and at the same time the heat damage to
the milk is kept at the lowest possible level.
Nutritional aspects
 Production of long life milk
Two methods are used for the production of long
life milk:
A In-container sterilisation, with the product and
package (container) being heated at about
116°C for about 20 minutes. Ambient storage.
• B Ultra High Temperature (UHT) treatment with
the product heated at 135 – 150°C for 4 – 15
seconds followed by aseptic packaging in
packages protecting the product against light
and atmospheric oxygen. Ambient storage.
In-container sterilisation
Two processes are used for
sterilisation in bottles or cans.
• Batch processing in autoclaves
• Continuous processing systems such
as:
• – vertical hydrostatic towers
• – horizontal sterilisers
• Batch processing
The batch system can be operated by three
methods:
 In stacks of crates in a static pressure
vessel (autoclave,
In a cage which can be rotated in a static
autoclave,
In a rotary autoclave.
 Manufacture of Sweetened Condensed
Milk
Sweetened condensed milk (SCM) is
concentrated milk to which sugar has been
added to act as a preservative. It differs from
unsweetened evaporated milk, which is
preserved by sterilization at high temperature
after packaging. Typically, SCM contains
around 8% fat, 45% sugar, and 20% solids-
non-fat. The finished product is mainly used
in the manufacture of confectionery and
chocolate.
 The Process

• Traditionally SCM was produced by adding

sugar to whole milk and removing water by
evaporation. Increasingly, SCM is made by
addition of skim milk powder (SMP), butter
oil, and sugar to milk or water to increase
the solids to the desired level. Depending on
the amount added, this can shorten or even
eliminate the evaporation stage.
 The Problem
The process is subject to a number of problems:
• Skim milk powder and full cream milk powder are very
cohesive and difficult to wet out, making handling and
controlled powder addition difficult.
• The powders will form agglomerates when added to the
liquid. Agitators do not produce sufficient shear to
rapidly break these down.
• Dissolving high concentrations of sugar using agitators is
a slow process.
• High pressure homogenization may be required to ensure
the product is agglomeratefree and properly dispersed.
 The Solution
These problems can be overcome by using a
Silverson mixer. In most cases the sugar would
be added straight into the vessel, being
dispersed by a Silverson batch mixer or a simple
agitator working in conjunction with an In-Line
mixer as shown below. The high shear action of
the rotor/ stator workhead accelerates the
dissolving process (see overleaf).The milk
powder can be added in the same manner, or,
for large volumes, using the Flashblend
powder/liquid mixing system.
Production of Flavored
Milk Drinks
•Flavored milk drinks are available in many varieties.
Viscosities range from that of whole milk, to “thick
milkshake” products which achieve their viscosity through
use of thickening additives, sometimes in combination with
freezing. Yogurt drinks are similar in composition, but are
processed differently, and are not covered in this report.
Milk ingredients are also used in fruit drinks (sometimes
referred to as “smoothies”) to add texture and interest.
Again, these drinks are processed differently to regular
flavored milks using other ingredients (particularly
stabilizers). In most countries, legislation covers the
composition and labeling of these products. These
regulations restrict the use of certain ingredients and
specify minimum content and total solids.
 The Process
• Liquid ingredients are weighed/metered into the
process vessel. Heating follows to aid dissolving/
hydration of ingredients.
• Powdered ingredients - skim milk powder, sugars,
etc. are added to the liquid and mixed until
dispersed.
• Stabilizers and emulsifiers are added. These may
be dry premixed with other ingredients, e.g. sugar,
to reduce agglomeration and “weight” the powder
to aid incorporation into the liquid.
• Flavor and coloring may be added at this stage.
• The mix is homogenized, usually by passing
through a high pressure homogenizer.
Subsequent processing varies according to the type of
product:
• Some “thick milkshakes” are frozen at point of sale.
• Short shelf life products are pasteurized, typically in a
continuous plate heat exchanger before cooling,
filling into bottles and then storage at 35-40°F (2-4°C).
• Long life products are sterilized at around 285°F
(140°C), then packed under aseptic conditions,
usually in Tetrapak® type cartons, or plastic bottles.
• Sterilized Milk products are heated to around
275°F(135°C), then cooled to 140°F (60°C) before
being filled into bottles. These are sterilized after
being hermetically sealed.
The process is subject to a number of problems
when using agitators and conventional
powder/liquid blending systems:
• The powders are very cohesive, and must be
added at a controlled rate to reduce
agglomeration of particles.
• Premixing of powders increases labor costs and
process time.
• Stabilizing and emulsifying agents have a strong
tendency to agglomerate and require special
handling.
• Poor dispersion can lead to clusters of partially
hydrated material building up on the walls of the
heat exchanger, impairing heat transfer.
• Incomplete hydration also reduces yield of raw
materials.
• Long processing times are required to complete
dispersion and achieve a satisfactory consistency.
• Potential full yield of stabilizers is difficult to
obtain using traditional methods.
• Many formulations contain unnecessarily high
levels of these raw materials to compensate for
poor yield and wastage.
Cultures and starter •
manufacture •
 Bacteria cultures, known as
starters, are used in the
manufacture of yoghurt, kefir and
other cultured milk products as
well as in buttermaking and
cheesemaking. The starter is
added to the product and
allowed to grow there under
controlled conditions.
In the course of the resulting fermentation,
the bacteria produce substances which give
the cultured product its characteristic
properties such as acidity (pH), flavour,
aroma and consistency. The drop in pH,
which takes place when the bacteria
ferment lactose to lactic acid, has a
preservative effect on the product, while at
the same time the nutritional value and
digestibility are improved
 Such bacterial characteristics as
optimum growth temperature and salt
tolerance are very important in the
composition of a culture. The purpose
of the component strains is to
produce the desired result in
symbiosis, not to compete with each
other. Their characteristics must
therefore be complementary in these
respects.
Dairies normally buy ready-mixed starters –
commercial cultures – from special
laboratories. These laboratories put much
effort into research and development to
compose special cultures for a given product,
e.g. butter, cheese and a great number of
cultured milk products. Thus the dairies can
obtain cultures with selected properties for
specific product characteristics such as
texture, flavour and viscosity.
The dairies can buy the commercial cultures in
various forms:
• Liquid, for propagation of mother culture
(nowadays fairly rare).
• Deep-frozen, concentrated cultures for
propagation of bulk starter.
• Freeze-dried, concentrated cultures in powder
form, for propagation of bulk starter.
• Deep-frozen, superconcentrated cultures in
readily soluble form, for direct inoculation of the
product.
Stages in the process
The process, presented is essentially the same for
production of mother culture, intermediate
culture and bulk starter. It comprises the
following stages:
• heat treatment of the medium
• cooling to inoculation temperature
• inoculation
• incubation
• cooling of the finished culture
• storage of the culture
Cultured milk products
•Cultured milk is the collective name for products
such as yoghurt, ymer, kefir, cultured buttermilk,
filmjölk (Scandinavian sour milk), cultured cream
and koumiss (a product based on mares’ milk). The
generic name of cultured milk is derived from the
fact that the milk for the product is inoculated with
a starter culture which converts part of the lactose
to lactic acid. Carbon dioxide, acetic acid, diacetyl,
acetaldehyde and several other substances are
formed in the conversion process, and these give
the products their characteristic fresh taste and
aroma
Cultured milk originates from the Near East
and subsequently became popular in
Eastern and Central Europe. The first
example of cultured milk was presumably
produced accidentally by nomads. This milk
“turned sour” and coagulated under the
influence of certain micro-organisms. As
luck would have it, the bacteria were of the
harmless, acidifying type and were not
toxin-producing organisms.
The conversion of lactose into lactic acid
has a preservative effect on milk. The low
pH of cultured milk inhibits the growth of
putrefactive bacteria and other detrimental
organisms, thereby prolonging the shelf life
of the product. On the other hand,
acidified milk is a very favourable
environment for yeasts and moulds, which
cause off-flavours if allowed to infect the
products.
The digestive systems of some people
lack the lactase enzyme. As a result,
lactose is not broken down in the
digestive process into simpler types of
sugars. These people can consume only
very small volumes of ordinary milk.
They can however consume cultured
milk, in which the lactose is already
partly broken down by the bacterial
enzymes.
•Yoghurt
•Yoghurt is the best known of all
cultured-milk products, and the
most popular almost all over the
world. Consumption of yoghurt is
highest in countries around the
Mediterranean, in Asia and in
Central Europe.
Yoghurt is typically classified as follows:
• Set type incubated and cooled in the package.
• Stirred type incubated in tanks and cooled
before packing.
• Drinking type similar to stirred type, but the
coagulum is “broken down” to a liquid before
being packed.
• Frozen type incubated in tanks and frozen like
ice cream.
• Concentrated incubated in tanks,
concentrated and cooled before being packed.
This type is sometimes called strained yoghurt,
•Flavoured yoghurt
•Yoghurt with various flavouring and
aroma additives is very popular,
although the trend back towards
natural yoghurt is clearly discernible on
some markets. Common additives are
fruit and berries in syrup, processed or
as a puree. The proportion of fruit
usually about 15%, of which about 50%
is sugar.
The fruit is mixed with the yoghurt
before or in conjunction with
packing; it can also be placed in
the bottom of the pack before the
latter is filled with yoghurt.
Alternatively, the fruit can be
separately packed in a “twin cup”
integrated with the basic cup.
Factors affecting the quality of
yoghurt
• Choice of milk
• Milk standardisation
• Milk additives
• Deaeration
• Homogenisation
• Heat treatment
• Choice of culture
• Culture preparation
• Plant design
Long-life yoghurt
Because of the tendency towards larger and more
centralised productionunits, the markets are
becoming geographically larger and transport dist
ances longer. In some cases the sales district may
be so large that only one delivery per week is
economically justifiable. This, in turn, necessitates
methods which extend the shelf life of the product
beyond normal. In some countries it is difficult to
maintain the integrity of the cooling chain. There is
therefore a demand for a sterilised yoghurt that
can be stored at room temperature.
Kefir
Kefir is one of the oldest cultured milk
products. It originates from the
Caucasus region. The raw material is
milk from goats, sheep or cows. Kefir is
produced in many countries, although
the largest quantity – an annual total
of about 5 litres per capita is
consumed in Russia.
Cheese
 Making Cheese
 Bacteria added to milk.
Sugar changes to lactic acid, gives flavour.
 Milk warmed, rennet (enzyme) added.
 Milk changes to curds and whey.
 Curds drained, chopped, salted, whey removed.
 Curds pressed into moulds, the harder it is pressed
the harder the cheese.
 The blocks of cheese are left to mature.
 Packaged and labelled.
Average Composition
 Protein 27%
 Fat 33%
 Carbohydrate 0%
 Vitamins 1% A
B
 Minerals 4%
Calcium
 Water 35%
 Nutritive value (Food value)
 Protein, high %, HBV, for growth and repair of
cells
 Fat, high %, saturated, for energy, low fat cheese
has half the fat.
 Carbohydrate, none, serve with carbs like bread
 Minerals, calcium for bones and teeth
 Vitamin A (eyes, skin, membranes, growth), B
(nerves, energy).
 Water, depends on whether the cheese is hard
semi-soft or soft
 Value in the diet
 Important for growth – calcium, protein, Vit
A.
 Lots of varieties.
 Versatile – many uses.
 Easily packed – lunches, picnics.
 Cheap, no waste.
 Very little preparation.
 High in fat and cholesterol avoided by
people overweight and with heart disease.
 Hard to digest because high in fat,
invalids, elderly may have to avoid it
 Classification of cheeses
Soft Semi - hard Hard Processed

Cottage Cheddar Cheese spreads

Edam
Cream Parmesan Triangles
Gouda
Brie Cheshire Slices
Stilton
Camembert Gruyere Foil wrapped
Soft Cheese
Semi-soft/semi-hard cheese
 Hard
Cheeses
 Uses of Cheese
 Healthy snack.
 Sandwiches.
 Salads.
 Part of main dish, Quiche, Pizza, lasagne.
 Cheese sauce.
 Garnishing: soup, spaghetti, ‘au gratin’
dishes.
 Final course.
 Fat melts.
 Protein coagulates Effects of cooking
and then hardens
and becomes
on cheese
harder to digest.
 Turns brown.
 Bacteria destroyed.
 Vit B lost.

 To make cheese
easier to digest:
grate it, add
mustard, cook as
little as possible.
 DEFINED
• Curds – coagulated proteins (casein) of milk
• FDA – product made from curd
• Whey – liquid remaining; some may be trapped in
the curds
• Milk can be curdled with enzymes or acid from
microbial cultures
• Ripened – allowed to cure in temperature-humidity-
controlled atmosphere
• Unripened – eaten fresh within a few weeks
 RIPENING
• Changes in physical and chemical properties
• Changes aroma, flavor, texture, compostion
• Production of lactic acid
• Digestion of protein by enzymes
• Mold development
• Gas formation
• Improves cooking qualities
 STANDARDS OF IDENTITY
• Defines cheese
• Type and quality of ingredients
• Composition including moisture content and
minimum percent of fat
• Requirements concerning pasteurization of
milk or alternate minimum ripening period
• Production or manufacturing process
• Special requirement peculiar to a particular
type of cheese
CLASSIFICATION
 VERY HARD RIPENED CHEESE
• Made principally from low fat cow’s
milk
• Fairly low moisture content
• Hard grating cheeses 22% fat content
• Sharp flavor
• Minimum cure time (6 months)
• Parmesan and romano
 HARD RIPENED CHEESE

• From pasteurized milk

• Subject to action of lactic acid bacteria
• Cured for 2 months to 2 years
• Flavor increasingly sharp with longer cure
• Moisture content 39-45%
• Milkfat minimum 22-30%
• Cheddar, colby, edam, gouda, provolone,
swiss
 SEMISOFT RIPENED CHEESE
• Moisture content of 35-45%
• Milkfat minimum of 27-29%
• Manufacture similar to hard cheese; may not be
cut or heated
• Brick, muenster
• Subset: blue-vein cheeses: made with mold
culture characteristic of each variety (Bleu,
Roquefort)
• Ripening spreads mold throughout cheese
hydrolyzes fat; causes flavor and texture changes
 SOFT UNRIPENED CHEESE

• Made from mixture of milk, skim milk,

cream, concentrated skim milk
• Uses lactic acid bacteria with or without
rennin
• Curd is pressed, chilled and seasoned (salt)
• Lower fat content (4-33%)
• High moisture content (55-83%)
• Cottage, cream and neufchatel
 SOFT RIPENED CHEESE
• Mold or bacteria culture used to effect
cure and develop flavor
• Cure from outside to inside
• Moisture content 50%
• Milkfat minimum 25%
• Brie, camembert, limburger
 PASTA FILATA
• Curds that are very elastic or stretch
• Moisture content 45-60%
• Milkfat minimum 14-15%
• Mozzarella and provolone
 PROCESS CHEESE
• May be a single type of cheese or a blend of
cheese from different stages of ripening
• Emulsifiers are added to keep fat in emulsion
• Emulsifiers makes cheeses easier to blend
• Longer shelf life because of added
preservatives
• Pasteurized processed cheese, process
cheese food, process cheese spread
 COLD-PACK CHEESE
• Grind and mix one or more varieties
of cheese without heat
• Other additions – spices, salt,
coloring
• May not exceed moisture content of
original cheese
 LOW FAT CHEESE
• Use low fat milk texture harder, more
waxy, chewy and springy
• Less meltable
NUTRITIONAL VALUE
 NUTRIENTS

• Protein – highest quality

• Fat and water content determine energy value
• Cholesterol – depends on variety
• Calcium- highest in rennin formed curds; acid
coagulation calcium lost in whey – commercial
cottage cheese uses acid + rennet
 NUTRIENTS CONTINUED
• Lactose – generally left in whey during curd
formation; residue amounts changed to lactic
acid; added to creamed cottage cheese and
process cheese
• Sodium – high because added during
manufacturing
• Vitamin A and Riboflavin – if made from whole
milk
COOKING PRINCIPLES
 COOKING
• High protein/high fat food sensitive to
heat
• Proteins coagulate and become tough and
rubbery if overheated
• Fat will melt; overheated emulsion breaks
 water loss  cheese shrinks, toughens
• High fat cheeses melt more rapidly
• High moisture cheeses are easily blended
 COOKING
• Emulsifiers  enhance blending, prevent
separation of fat during heating
• Longer ripening time  superior cooking
qualities
• Acid causes texture to become crumbly
as proteins curl up
INGREDIENTS AND
HOW TO USE THEM
 MILK
Man has taken milk from many animals
during the course of history. The familiar
cow, goat, and sheep have fed people for
centuries, and so have some less common
animals such as the yak, camel, buffalo,
llama, ass, elk, mare, caribou, and reindeer.
Cow's milk and goat's milk are the only ones
readily available in this country today, so
they will be used in the recipes in this part .
PASTEURIZATION
Using Milk Powder

Coagulation — HOW and Why

Bacterial Culture

Cheese Starter culture

 Rennet

Cheese rennet is not the same as the junket

rennet sold in grocery stores. It is possible to
curdle milk with junket rennet, but the resulting
curd, while it makes a pleasant dessert, will not
make an acceptable cheese. Cheese rennet is
available as tablets or in liquid form. Rennet that
is an animal derivative is extracted from the
fourth stomach of a calf or young goat. Its rennet
contains an enzyme called rennin which has the
property of causing milk to form a solid curd.
Today, rennet is available as
both animal and vegetable
derivatives. Vegetable rennet is
an enzyme derived from the
mold Mucor miehei, and is
marketed in liquid and tablet
form.
 Rennet coagulation
When milk has ripened for the proper
length of time for the cheese you plan
to make, and it is still at the right
ripening temperature (85° to 90° F.), it
is time to add rennet. Before rennet is
added to the ripenedmilk, it must be
diluted in sterile water (water that
hasbeen boiled and then cooled to
room temperature).
Liquid rennet should be diluted
in about twenty times its own
volume of water. A rennet tablet
(or fraction of one) is crushed,
then dissolved in about 1/4 cup
of water. The correct amounts of
rennet to use will be found in
each recipe
Sprinkle the diluted rennet over the
surface of the milk and stir it in
thoroughly — all the way to the bottomof
the pot — to insure an even set. Then
cover the pot and let it sit undisturbed
for about forty-five minutes at the same
temperature. A curd is set when a finger
(or a dairy thermometer) is inserted into
it and it breaks cleanly all around as you
lift slightly.
 Temperature
Coagulation is a complicated
phenomenon. Time, temperature,
acidity, and the amount of rennet used
all play a part in its functioning. Rennet
usually works most efficiently at 104° F.
If the milk is warmer or cooler than
that, the action slows down. Rennet
also works faster in milk with a higher
acid content.
Curd starts out as a soft mass, and increases
in firmness as time passes, until it reaches
the point when it's best for cheesemaking.
Beyond that point, the quality deteriorates.
We lengthen the time element by controlling
acidity, temperature, and the amount of
rennet, so we'll be able to identify the exact
moment when the curd is ready to cut. If we
start too soon, the curd will be too soft to be
workable, and if we wait too long, it will
become weak.
 Coloring
The characteristic color of a finished
cheese is as much a part of its identity as
its flavor. Goat's milk produces a very
white cheese, due to the lack of carotene
in the milk. At the other end of the color
spectrum is the deep orange of the
longhorn and Colby cheeses. Cow's milk,
with a much higher carotene content,
makes a perfect Cheddar color with no
additive at all.
Color has no effect on the flavor
of a cheese except for Roquefort
and blue-type cheeses in which
the identifying blue flecks are
caused by the same mold or
fungus which imparts their
delectable flavor.
 salt
A coarse flake salt, similar to pickling
salt, should be used. The Diamond
Crystal salt company sells a crystal
kosher salt which is very good. The salt
is usually added to the curds just
before they are pressed, and in some
cases is rubbed gently on the outside of
the cheese after the skin (or rind) has
formed.
 Cheese wax
After the air-drying period, when a hard
cheese has developed a dry rind, it must be
protected with wax for the long aging period.
You may melt paraffin (in a double-boiler is
the only safe way) and add an equal amount
of a good grade of vegetable oil, painting this
mixture on your cheese with a bristle (not
nylon) brush. It may take two or three thin
coats of this mixture to protect the cheese.
Real cheese wax is stronger and more
pliable than paraffin. It can be removed in
two or three pieces from a cheese that is
ready to be eaten. It can be melted and
used again. It is applied with a bristle
brush at 240° F., and kills any surface
bacteria and flashes off any moisture on
the cheese. Being more pliable, it will not
crack as the curing cheese is turned from
time to time and therefore dmits no
unwanted mold during aging.
 Herbs

Herbs will add a variety of flavors to

your soft cheeses. They also add a
touch of color. It is preferable to use
fresh herbs whenever possible.
 Ice cream
Categories of ice cream
Ice cream can be divided into four main categories
according to the ingredients
used:
• Ice cream made exclusively from milk products,
• Ice cream containing vegetable fat,
• Sherbet ice cream made of fruit juice with added
milk fat and milk solids-non-fat,
• Water ice made of water, sugar and fruit
concentrate.
Butter and dairy spreads
Definitions
Fat spread: A "fat spread" is a food in
the form of an emulsion, which is
mainly of the water-in-oil type,
comprising principally an aqueous
phase and edible fats and oils. Edible
fats and oils: Foodstuffs mainly
composed of triglycerides of fatty
acids. They are of vegetable, animal,
milk or marine origin.
Butter
Butter is usually divided into two main
categories:
• sweet cream butter;
• cultured or sour cream butter made
from bacteriologically soured cream.
Butter can also be classified according
to salt content: unsalted, salted and
extra salted.
Butter and other fat spreads can be
characterized by the type of emulsion.
In milk or cream, fat is dispersed in the
continuous phase of serum while in
butter, there is a reversal of phase i.e.
fat becomes the continuous phase
with serum dispersed in it. This phase
reversal is carried out by churning
cream in butter churns.
Preparation of Cream
Commercial butter can be produced from
both sweets as well as cultured cream. Very
little cultured butter is produced in India
and U.S.A., although in Europe and Canada,
cultured butter is an important product.
However, most creamery prefer to produce
butter from sweet cream as it result in
sweet butter milk which has better
economic value than sour butter-milk that
results when sour/cultured cream is
churned.
Expression of acidity in cream
Acidity in cream is present chiefly in the
serum portion and not in fat. The acidity
in cream as a whole known as cream
acidity (C.A.) while the acidity per cent
found in serum is known as cream serum
acidity (C.S.A). Cream serum acidity is
more reliable than cream acidity.
There is a relationship between CA &
C.SA as below:
CA % = Serum % in
cream
CSA% 100
Factors affecting neutralization
Accurate neutralization of sour cream is important
to get a desired quality product. Neutralization is
influenced by several factors such as:
i. Accuracy in sampling.
ii. Accuracy in testing.
iii. Accuracy in estimation of amounts of
cream and neutralizer.
iv. Careful weighing the quantity of
neutralizer.
v. Thorough mixing of neutralizer in
cream prior to pasteurization.
Standardization of cream
It refers to adjustment of fat to desired level.
It is done by adding calculated quantity of
skim milk or butter milk. Desired level of fat
in cream for butter making is 33 to 40 per
cent. Standardization to both higher and
lower level leads to higher fat loss in butter
milk. Reduction of fat by adding water
should be avoided as it interferes ripening of
cream and also results in butter with
�flat� or �washed off� flavour.
Pasteurization of cream
It refers to adjustment every
particle of cream to a
temperature not less that 71�C
and holding it at that temperature
for at least 20 min or any suitable
temperature-time combination
using properly operated
equipments
The main objectives of pasteurization are:
(i) it destroys pathogenic microorganisms
in cream so as to make it, and the resultant
butter, safe for human consumption.
(ii) It also destroys bacteria, yeast, mould,
enzymes and other biochemical agents
that may lower keeping quality.
(iii) It also eliminates some of the gaseous
and training substances.
 Ripening of cream
Ripening refers to the process of
fermentation of cream with the
help of suitable starter culture.
This step can be eliminated if
sweet-cream butter is desired.
The main object of cream
ripening is to produce butter with
higher diacetyl content.
Ripening improves the keeping quality of
salted butter but it reduces the keeping
quality of a salted butter. Starter culture
consisting of a mixture of both acid
producing (Streptococcus lactis,
S.cremories) and flavour producing
(S.diacetylactis, Leuconostoc citrovorum
and/or Leuc. dextranicum) organisms is
added. Amount of starter added depends
on several factors and usually ranges
between 0.5-2.0 percent of the weight of
the cream.
After being thoroughly mixed, the
cream is incubated at about 21oC
till desired an acidity is reached.
Cream is subsequently cooled to 5-
10�C to arrest further acid
development.
Biosynthesis of diacetyl is not
sufficient above pH 5.2. Stopping
fermentation of cream by cooling at
pH 5.1-5.3, results in a milder
flavour; whereas continuing
fermentation upto pH 4.5-4.7
results in higher levels of both
diacetyl and lactic acid, giving more
pronounced flavour.
Starter culture
Mixture of both acid producing organisms
(Lactococcus lactis, L. cremoris) and flavour
producing organisms (S. lactis subsp.
diacetylactis, Leuconostoc citrovorum and/or
Leuconostoc dextranicum). Starter culture is
added at the rate of 0.5 to 2.0% of the
weight of cream and incubated at about
21oC till desired acidity is reached. Usually it
takes 15-16 hrs.
Amount of Diacetyl Flavor

Absence of diacetyl Flavorless

0.2 to 0.6 ppm diacetyl Mild flavor

0.7 to 1.5 ppm diacetyl Full flavor

Amount of Diacetyl Flavor

Absence of diacetyl Flavorless

0.2 to 0.6 ppm diacetyl Mild flavor

0.7 to 1.5 ppm diacetyl Full flavor

Effect of Cream Ripening on Keeping Quality of
Butter
The development of flavor and aroma in butter by
cream ripening, or by any other process of
manufacture, can be of value only, provided that
it does not impair or destroy the keeping quality
of the resulting butter. The ripening of cream
affects the keeping quality of butter in two
fundamental ways, namely, by its control of age
deterioration due to bacterial causes, and by its
influence on age deterioration due to chemical
causes.
Bacteriological effect
The ripening of cream improves the
keeping quality of butter as far as
keeping quality is dependent on freedom
from age deterioration due to biological
causes. Cream ripening assists in
controlling bacterial deterioration in
butter. In butter made from ripened
cream there is a great prevalence of
lactic acid bacteria and a relatively high
acidity and probably an abundance of
lactate salts.
Chemical Effect
Cream ripening does not improve the
chemical stability of butter. On the contrary,
under average commercial conditions of
manufacture, the ripening of cream to a full
aroma and flavor shortens the life of salted
butter. The usual flavor defects that develop
with age in butter made from fully ripened
cream are oily-metallic, fishy and sometimes
tallowy flavor. There is a tendency also to
intensify the well-known cold storage flavor.
Cooling and ageing
Cooling and ageing are processes which
prepare the cream for subsequent operation
of churning. When cream leaves the
pasteurizer, the fat in the globule is in liquid
form. When cream is cooled, fat
crystallization starts, cream will not churn
unless the butter fat is at least partially
crystallized. If solidification of fat is not
sufficient, the fat losses in butter are high.
Rate of cooling has an important influence
on the body and texture of butter