GENERAL

PHYSIOLOGY
Anita Rao
• Introduction
• Characteristics of Life, Organizational Structure,
• Chemical Level: Matter, Elements, Atoms, Chemical
Bonds, Compounds, Chemical Reactions, Electrolytes,
Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale,
• Cellular Level: Cell Structure, Life Cycle of the Cell,
Cellular Signaling, Cellular Respiration, Body Fluid
Composition, Cellular Transport Mechanisms
• Tissue Level: Epithelial Tissues, Connective Tissues,
Muscle Tissues, Nervous Tissues
• Types of Membranes, Homeostasis
 Introduction :

Greek word
Physis-------nature
Logos-------study
• It is the study of normal functioning of the body
• Goal of physiology :
• To explain the physical and chemical factors that
are responsible for the origin, development, and
progression of life
 All living things share some basic properties.
Cellular Organization
Reproduction
Metabolism (Obtain and Use Energy)
Homeostasis
Heredity
Responsiveness
Growth and Development
Adapt Through Evolution
Levels of organization in the body
Cell physiology

• The “Inner Life of a Cell”

• Components and their functions
• Cell to Cell Junctions - Forming Tissues
• How it’s Integrated
Cells
CELLS

• Organelles are structures within cytoplasm.

• Operate in cooperative and organized manner
• Contain:
• Ribosomes (contain ribonucleic acid [RNA])
• Endoplasmic reticulum
• Golgi complex
• Lysosomes and peroxisomes
• Mitochondria
• Nucleus
Plasma Membrane
Cell membrane (Plasma Membrane)

Fluid Mosaic Model

Thickness-7-10nm
Composed of-
Protein (55%)
Lipid (40%)
Carbohydrates (5%)
 FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA MEMBRANE
• Protective Function
• Selective Permeability
• Separates ICF from ECF
• Transport Function
• Responsible for resting membrane potential
• In excitable tissues responsible for action potential
• Site of blood group antigens and Major Histocompatibility complex
• Absorptive function
• Excretory Function
• Responsible for formation of junctional complexes.
PROTEINS OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE PROVIDE 6
MEMBRANE FUNCTIONS:

1) Transport Proteins
2) Receptor Proteins
3) Enzymatic Proteins
4) Cell Recognition Proteins
5) Attachment Proteins
6) Intercellular Junction
Proteins
Transport Mechanisms
 TISSUES

• Epithelial Tissues
• Form sheets of single or multiple layers of
cells and glands
• form barriers due to zonula adherens,
zonula occludens and high cellularity
• Functions in
• Filtration
• Absorption & Secretion
• Protection & defense
• Communication
TISSUE

• Connective: binds other tissues to one

another
• Many different types
• Defense & Protection
• Transportation
• Structure
• Storage
• Shock absorption
• Production
TISSUES

• Muscle
• Functions
• Movement
• Heat generation
• Protection
• Types of muscle
• Skeletal
• Cardiac
• Smooth
Tissues

• Nerve tissue: transmits nerve impulses

• Peripheral nerves extend from brain and spinal cord
• Neurons: main conducting cells of nerve tissue
• Dendrites: conduct impulses to cell body
• Axons: conduct impulse away from cell body
• Neurotransmitters: carry impulse from axon to dendrite
 Homeostasis
• ‘Homeostasis’ is derived from two Greek
words; Homeo which means ‘unchanging’
and Stasis which means ‘staying the same’
• It is the condition inside an organism,which
‘stays the same’
• Homeostasis is the basis for normal
function of cells and the body.
• Helps maintains equilibrium
 MILIEU INTERIEUR

(1813-1878) • Milieu- Environment

• Interieur – Internal

• 19th French Physiologist.

• The father of modern

Physiology
• Concept of the internal environment of an
organism.

• Blood- as the internal environment.

 INTERNAL
ENVIRONMENT

21
 Internal environment
22
It is the environment in which the cells live, which is made up of extracellular fluid.
 The blood system maintains the composition of the tissue fluid

cells

tissue fluid glucose oxygen carbon dioxide

carbon dioxide

fluid filtered out of tissue fluid

capillary enters capillary
blood flow
(1871–1945) Walter Cannon

Homeostasis: maintenance of a constant

internal environment.
An extension of Claude Bernard idea 24
25
FACTORS HOMEOSTATICALLY REGULATED

1. Concentration of nutrient molecules

2. Concentration of CO2 andO2
3. Concentration of waste products
4. pH
5. Concentration of water , salt and other
electrolytes
6. Temperature
7. Volume and pressure
• The golden goal of every organ : to maintain
homeostasis
Organism in homeostasis

External change Internal change

Change results in loss of homeostasis

Organism attempts to compensate

Compensation falls Compensation succeeds

illness wellness
CONTROL SYSTEMS OF
THE BODY
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CONTROL SYSTEM

I. Nervous Control

II. Hormonal Control

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THE CHARACTERISTICS OF NERVOUS AND HORMONAL
REGULATION

Nervous Hormonal
regulation : regulation :
onset rapid slow

response accurate diffuse

localized
Duration shorter longer
NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE FEEDBACK
• Negative feedback
The feedback signals produce an effect opposite to that
of the control system.
For example ： Regulation of body temperature,
Regulation of Blood pressure
• Positive feedback
The feedback signal or output from the controlled
system increases the action of the control system
• For example ： Blood clotting, parturition
When normal intercellular communication and normal
metabolism are disturbed, the body will respond in
various ways to compensate and attempt to restore
normal metabolism , a.k.a. — homeostasis.
• Stressors on a body system are inputs.
• The portion of the system creating the input is an
effector.
• A negative feedback loop exists when body
mechanisms work to reverse an input.
• Decompensation occurs when the system cannot
compensate and restore homeostasis.
 13

One important method of achieving homeostasis is

negative feedback It applies to many systems in the body.
Temperature regulation is one example
• If the blood temperature rises, a ‘heat gain’ centre in
the brain sends nerve impulses to the skin, which
causes vasodilation and sweating, which cool the blood
• If the blood temperature falls, it stimulates a ‘heat loss’
centre in the brain which sends impulse to the skin
causing vasoconstriction and the cessation of sweating.
These changes reduce heat loss from the skin
• The warmer or cooler blood provides negative feedback
to the thermoregulatory centre in the brain
 Negative feedback

Increased arterial pressure

Baroreceptors(sensor)

Inhibit vasomotor center in medulla

Decreased impulses to heart &blood vessels

Decreased pumping activity of heart and V.D

Decreased blood pressure

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Increased CO2 in tissue fluid

Excites respiratory center

Increased rate of breathing

More CO2 is expired

Decreased CO2 in tissue fluid

Eating Blood glucose ↑

Pancreatic islet
-

Insulin ↑

Cellular uptake of glucose ↑

Blood glucose ↓
37
The glucose concentration in the blood is controlled by the
pancreas
The pancreas contains cells which produce insulin and
glucagon
If the glucose concentration rises, the beta cells release
insulin
Insulin stimulates the liver and muscles to remove excess
glucose from the blood and store it as glycogen
Glucagon stimulates the liver to convert its stored glycogen
into glucose which is then released into the bloodstream
In this way, the concentration of glucose in the blood is kept
within narrow limits
NEGATIVE FEED BACK CONTROL
OF THYROXIN
POSITIVE FEEDBACK

The output is continually enhanced

or amplified so that the controlled
variable continues to be moved in
the direction of the initial change or
a pathway in which the response
accelerates the stimulus.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK

Onset of labour

Oxytocin released from hypothalmus

Increased uterine contractions

Baby’s head pushed through cervix

Stretch of cervix

More oxytocin released

Increased uterine contractions

POSITIVE FEEDBACK

Blood vessel ruptured

Clotting factors activated in clot itself

Activated clotting factors activate inactivated

clotting factors as an enzyme

Clot formed and bleeding stopped

 “Gain” determines the effectiveness of the control system

• GAIN = correction/error
• Higher the gain, more efficient is the system

Normal BP = 100 mm Hg
• Some disturbance causes an ↑ BP = 175 mm Hg
Baroreceptor mechanism brings BP down to 125 mm Hg

• So correction done by baroreceptor mechanism = - 50 mm Hg

• But still error = 25 mm Hg So, Gain = -

50/25 = - 2
 Feedforward
mechanism

It brings about a compensatory response in

anticipation of a change in a regulated variable.
 Feed-forward control
Concept: a direct effect of stimulus on the control
system before the action of feedback signal occurs.

Here the direct effect of the stimulus is termed

disturb signal or interfere signal.

Example: Shivering before diving into the cold water

 Feed forward control

Sensory nerve signals from the moving parts apprise

the brain whether movement is performed correctly.
If not , the brain corrects the feed forward signals
that it sends to the muscles the next time the
movement is performed. This is called adaptive
control and is a delayed negative feedback.
 The body’s cells interact
and intercommunicate with
substances secreted by
various body glands.
Ligands

• Molecules that bind to receptors to form more

complex structures
• Endogenous ligands: produced by body
• Exogenous ligands: administered as a drug
• Common ligands include:
• Hormones: substances formed in specialized organs or
groups of cells
• Endocrine: carried to target by the blood
• Exocrine: reach target via duct that opens into an organ
• Paracrine: diffuse through intracellular spaces
• Autocrine: act on the cell from which it was secreted
 Ligands

• Common ligands include:

• Neurotransmitters: proteins that affect signals of the
nervous system
• Electrolytes: dissolved mineral salts that dissociate in
solution, yielding ions
• Cations: positively charged
• Anions: negatively charged
Synaptic signaling—cells secrete neurotransmitters that
transmit signals across synapses.
Hormones and neurotransmitters are
received by various receptors:
• Receptors are specialized.
• Adrenergic receptors cause a sympathetic response (vasoconstriction or vasodilatation).
• Baroreceptors and chemoreceptors are involved in regulation of heart function.

• Nerve endings
• Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli.
• Baroreceptors respond to pressure changes.
• Alpha and beta receptors respond to neurotransmitters and
medications.
• Sensory organs
• Proteins that interact with, and then respond to the chemical signals
and other stimuli
Distribution of body fluids
About 60 percent of the adult human body is fluid,
mainly a water solution of ions and other substances

• Intracellular fluid: 45% body weight

• Extracellular fluid: 15% body weight
• Interstitial fluid: surrounds tissues
• Intravascular fluid: within blood
vessels
COMPOSITION OF BODY
FLUIDS
CATIONS (mmol/l) Plasma Intracellular

Na 142 14
K 4.2 140
Ca 1.3 0
Mg 0.8 20

ANIONS (mmol/l)
Cl 108 4.0
HCO3 24.0 10
Protein 1.2 4.0
HPO4 2.0 11
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ECF & ICF

Anions: Cations: Anions: Cations:

Cl- (108) Cl- (4)
Na+-142 HCO3- (10)
Na+ (14)
HCO3- (24) + Phosphate ions K+ (140)
K (4.2)
Mg2+ (20)
Mg2+ (0.8)
ECF ICF

Nutrients:
O2, glucose, fatty acids, & Nutrients:
amino acids. High concentrations of
proteins.
Wastes:
CO2, Urea, uric acid,
excess water, & ions.
 Fluid compartments

Extra celluar fluid intracellularfluid

Plasma Interstitial Transcellular

Intra ocular
• Pleural
• Peritoneal
• Synovial
• Digestive Secretions
Fluid and water balance

• Average adult takes in 2,500 mL per day

• 60% lost through urination
• 28% lost through skin and lungs
• 6% lost in feces
• 6% lost in sweat
• Fluid moves through passive transport
and active transport.
Fluid and water
balance
• Osmosis
• Movement from region of high water
concentration to lower concentration
• Hypertonic solution: high solute
concentration
• Hypotonic solution: low solute concentration
• Isotonic solution: equal solute concentration
Fluid and water balance
Fluid and water balance

• Intracellular fluid volume controlled by:

• Proteins and organic compounds that
cannot escape through the cell membrane
• Sodium-potassium membrane pump
• Pump failure causes sodium to accumulate and
cells to swell.
Fluid and water balance

• Plasma
• Approximately 55% of blood
• Composed of 91% water and 9% proteins
• Starling hypothesis explains movement of water
between plasma and interstitial fluid
• Amount of fluid filtering through capillaries is equal to
amount of fluid returned by reabsorption.
Fluid and water balance

• Plasma (cont’d)
• Equilibrium between capillary and interstitial space is
controlled by four forces
• Capillary hydrostatic pressure
• Capillary colloidal osmotic pressure
• Interstitial fluid pressure
• Interstitial fluid colloidal osmotic pressure
Fluid and water balance
• Edema
• Occurs when excessive fluid builds up in the
interstitial space
• Causes include:
• Increased capillary pressure
• Decreased colloidal osmotic pressure
• Lymphatic vessel obstruction
Fluid and water balance

• Edema (cont’d)
• Assessment should include:
• Auscultation of lung sounds
• Evaluation for pedal/sacral edema and jugular
venous distention
• ECG and vital sounds
• Treatment may include diuretics, nitrates,
CPAP, high-flow oxygen, or advanced airway
placement
Fluid and electrolyte balance
• Maintained through a variety of factors
• Most important: thirst mechanism and release of antidiuretic
hormone (ADH)
• Hydration is monitored by:
• Osmoreceptors
• Volume-sensitive receptors
• Baroreceptors

• Sodium
• Most common cation
• Regulates body’s acid-base balance
• Primary regulator: RAAS
• Excess sodium is excreted into urine.
Fluid and electrolyte balance

• Chloride
• Important anion
• Assists in regulating acid-base balance
• Involved in osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid
• Often follows sodium
Fluid and electrolyte balance
Electrolyte imbalance
• Sodium
• Hypertonic fluid deficit: caused by excess water loss without
proportionate loss of sodium
• Results in hypernatremia
• Hypotonic fluid deficit: caused by excess sodium loss with less
water loss
• Results in hyponatremia

• Potassium
• Normal level: 3.5 to 5 mEq/L
• Hypokalemia: decreased serum potassium level
• Hyperkalemia: elevated serum potassium level
Electrolyte imbalance

• Calcium
• Normal level: 8.5 to 10.5 mg/dL
• Hypocalcemia: decreased serum calcium level
• Hypercalcemia: increased serum calcium level
• Phosphate
• Hypophosphatemia: decreased phosphate level
• Hyperphosphatemia: increased phosphate level
• Magnesium:
• Hypomagnesemia: decreased magnesium level
• Hypermagnesemia: increased magnesium level
Acid-Base
balance
• Acid: any molecule that can give up a hydrogen ion
• Base (alkali): any molecule that can accept a hydrogen ion
• Acidity or basicity (alkalinity) is determined by the amount of free hydrogen in
solution.
• pH: measurement of level of acidity or alkalinity
• Normal pH is between 7.35 and 7.45.
Disturbances of acid-base balance

• Acids and bases neutralize each other and must remain

balanced.
• Acidosis: increase in extracellular H+ ions
• Alkalosis: decrease in extracellular H+ ions
• Disturbances are associated with potassium balance
Buffer Systems
• Buffers: molecules that modulate pH
• Absence causes abrupt changes in pH
• Includes proteins, phosphate ions, and bicarbonate
• Balances pH by absorbing or releasing necessary amount of acid
Buffer systems
• Primary buffer systems:
• Circulating bicarbonate: fastest means of restoring
balance
• Respiratory system: excessive acid is eliminated
through lungs
• Renal system: filters out hydrogen and retains
bicarbonate or reverse
Buffer systems

• Circulating bicarbonate buffer component

• H2CO3  H+  HCO3–
• Respiratory buffer component
• H2CO3  CO2 + H2O
• Renal buffer component
• H2CO3  H+ + HCO3–
Types of acid-base disorders

• Fluctuations in pH due to bicarbonate level: metabolic

acidosis or alkalosis
• Fluctuations in pH due to respiratory disorders:
respiratory acidosis or alkalosis
• A disorder not correctable by buffers initiates
compensatory mechanisms.
Types of acid-base disorders

• Respiratory acidosis
• Related to hypoventilation
• Can quickly develop a potentially fatal acidosis
• Chronic COPD creates acidosis over time.
• Respiratory alkalosis
• Always caused by hyperventilation
• Life-threatening events may be responsible.
• Carbon dioxide levels drop.
• Renal system retains H+ ions.
• Results in Hypocalcemia
Types of acid-base disorders
Types of acid-base disorders

• Metabolic acidosis: any acidosis not related to the

respiratory system
• Causes include:
• Lactic acid
• Ketoacidosis
• Aspirin overdose
• Alcohol ingestion
• Gastrointestinal loses
Types of acid-base disorders

• Metabolic alkalosis: occurs with excessive

acid loss
• Causes include:
• Upper gastrointestinal losses of acid
• Drinking large amounts of water during exercise
• Excessive intake of alkaline substances
• Compensatory mechanism: respiratory
system
Types of acid-base disorders

• Mixed acidosis: involves low pH, elevated PCo2

level, and low HCO3 level.
• Both respiratory and metabolic acidosis are
present.
• Mixed alkalosis: involves elevated pH, low
PCo2, and elevated HCO3.
• Occurs when two unrelated medical issues
manifest at the same time
Negative feedback
loop

• Body mechanisms that function to reverse or compensate

for a pathophysiological process (or to reverse any
physiological process, whether pathological or
nonpathological
• Output of a system corrects the situation that created the
input
• Feedback negates the input caused by the original stressor
• Feedback must be orchestrated and synchronized to
maintain homeostasis