MECHANICS OF

MATERIALS
GROUP G
 S/N NAME REGISTRATION NUMBER

1. KATAMBA DICKSON 23/U/APD/06562/PD

2. KIZZA KAKOOZA STUART 23/U/APD/157/GV

3. TWINAMATSIKO MOSES 23/U/APD/13240/PD

4. IMALINGAT WILLIAM 23/U/APD/05970/PD

5. NKONGE JOSEPH DDIMIRIRE 23/U/APD/290/GV

6. NASSUNA EVA KYOBE 23/U/APD/14752/PD

7. ALARA EMMANUEL ASINDUA 23/U/APD/03669/PD

Group 8. MULIIKA FRANCIS 24/U/APD/509/GV

Associate 9. ASIIMWE ANDREW KAGABA 23/U/APD/04414/PD

10. KASULE GIDEON MUSAASIZI 23/U/APD/06547/PD

s 11. MABIRIZI DERRRICK

KALIBALA DERRICK MATTHEW
23/U/APD/07756/PD
23/U/APD/116/GV
12.

13. OGUTI JOEL 23/U/APD/11687/PD

14. LUGANDA DAVIS 23/U/APD/07651/PD

15. NASASIRA ENOCK 23/U/APD/274/GV

16. OKELLO RICHARD JACKSON 24/APD/580/GV

17. MUKISA JOSHUA 23/U/APD/201/GV

18. KAKUBA ARTHUR 23/U/APD/113/GV

19. AINEPLAN ABRAHAM 24/U/APD/0703/PD

 The common most theories are;
1. Maximum principal stress theory
2. Maximum Principal strain theory
3. Maximum shear stress theory
4. Maximum strain energy theory
Outline Of
5. Maximum shear strain energy theory
Coverage
6. Graphical Representation of Theories for Two-Dimensional
Stress System
7. Important Points from Theories of Failures used in Design
8. Energy of Distortion (or Shear Strain Energy)
9. Examples
A failure theory is a criterion that is used in an effort to
predict the failure of a given material when subjected to a
complex condition. Illustration of failure in gears
due to mechanical fatigue
Failure of a member is defined as one of the two which leads to cracks or other
conditions: types of damage.
 Fracture of a material of which the member is made.
This type of failure is the characteristic of brittle
materials.
 Initiation of inelastic (Plastic behavior) in the material.
This type of failure is the one generally exhibited by
ductile materials.
When an Engineer is faced with the problem of design
using specific materials, it is important to place an upper
limit on the state of stress that defines the material’s
failure. If the material is ductile, failure is usually specified
by the initiation of yielding whereas if the material is
brittle, it is specified by fracture.
(a) Failure of a truck drive-shaft spline due to Valve-spring failure caused by spring
corrosion fatigue. (b) Direct end view of failure. surge in an oversped engine.
Failure
Examples

Water pipe
failure
Impact failure of a lawnmower blade
 Crankshaft failure due to fatigue
Bolt and plate failures
cracking
1. Maximum Principal (Normal) Stress Theory
This theory was proposed by Rankine.
 It states that failure will occur when the maximum principal stress (σ₁) in the complex
system reaches the value of maximum stress (σyt) at the elastic limit simple tension or
the minimum principal stress (i.e. maximum principal compression stress) reaches the
elastic limit (σyt) in simple compression.

σ₁ ≥ σyt [In simple tension]

|σ3| ≥ σyc [In simple compression]

 For a given design, the maximum principal stress should not exceed the working stress
or permissible stress(σ) for that material (i.e. σ₁ σ)
 Working stress, σ =

Where F is the “Factor of Safety”

This theory is valid for;
 Brittle metals such as cast iron.
 Thin-walled tubes.

The maximum principal stress theory is contradicted in the following

cases;
 Failure in simple tension is caused by sliding at 45° with the axis of the
specimen, there by failure occurred due to maximum shear stress and
not due to direct tensile stress.
 The material which is weak in simple compression can sustain large
hydrostatic pressure in excess of the elastic limit in simple compression.
The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 100 N/mm2 (tensile), 80
N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit in simple
tension is 200 N/mm2, determine whether the failure of material will occur according to
maximum principal stress theory. If not, then determine the factor of safety.
Given : σ1 = 100 N/mm2 (tensile) σ2 = 80 N/mm2 (tensile)
σ3 = 50 N/mm2 (compressive) = – 50 N/mm2 , σt* = 200 N/mm2
(i) From given stresses, maximum principal tensile stress is σ1 = 100 N/mm2. stress at
elastic limit in simple tension, σt* = 200 N/mm2.
As σ1 < σt*, the failure will not occur according to maximum principal stress
theory.
(ii) since σ1 = σt σσ t = 100 N/mm2
∴ Factor of safety =
=
= 2.0
Graphical Representation Of Theories For Two-
dimensional Stress System
 The different theories of failure can be represented graphically for two-dimensional
stress system. This means only and are existing. The third principal stress is zero i.e.,
= 0. The principal stress is taken along x-axis having +ve value to the right of origin O.
The principal stress is taken along y-axis, having +ve value upwards. It will also be
assumed that the elastic limit is the same in tension and compression.
 Hence = = where σ* = Elastic limit in tension and compression. Now the theories of
failure may be represented graphically as follows:

1. Maximum Principal Stress Theory.

According to this theory failure occurs when,
Maximum tensile principal stress, = = σ*
Maximum compressive principal stress, = = σ*
• The graph is divided into four quadrants.
• In 1st quadrant, and are +ve.
• In 2nd quadrant,is -ve whereas is +ve.
• In 3rd quadrant, both and are -ve and in 4th
quadrant is +ve and is-ve.
• The maximum values of = ±0 and also
maximum value of = ±0.
• The plotting of =σ*, =σ*,=-σ*and
=-σ* will give a square ABCD.
• Hence ABCD is the graphical representation
of the maximum principal stress theory. The
failure of the material will occur if any point
having co-ordinates (, ) falls outside the
square ABCD
2. Maximum Principal Strain Theory
This theory was proposed by Saint Venant.
 According to this theory, failure of a material subjected to a bi-axial or tri-axial
state of stress occurs when the maximum principal strain reaches the strain at
yield point of the standard specimen subjected to a simple tension test or when
the minimum principal strain reaches the strain at yield point of the standard
specimen subjected to a simple compression test.
 This theory appropriate for ductile materials, brittle materials and materials
under hydrostatic pressure.
 Consider a material subjected to principal stresses σ₁, σ₂ & σ3 in a tri-axial state
of stress where σ₁ & σ₂ are tensile stress and σ3 is compressive. And having and
as the stresses at yield point in simple tension and simple compression
respectively.
 Using the generalized Hooke's law; the corresponding principal strains in the
direction of principal stress σ₁ and σ₂ (in simple tension) and , σ3(in simple
compression) are;
e₁ = [σ₁ - μ(σ₂ + σ3)]

e2 = [σ2 - μ(σ1 + σ3)]

e3 = [σ3 - μ(σ₁ + σ₂)]

 According to maximum principal strain theory, the conditions to cause failure are;

e₁ ≥ et ; [σ₁ - μ(σ₂ + σ3)] ≥ σ₁ - μ(σ₂ + σ3) ≥

| e 3 | ≥ e c; [σ3 - μ(σ₁ + σ₂)] ≥ σ3 - μ(σ₁ + σ₂)] ≥

 Considering the Factor of Safety (F.o.S) in our design, the criterion the
becomes;
Where; F.o.S = or
σ₁ - μ(σ₂ + σ3) ≥
σ3 - μ(σ₁ + σ₂)] ≥
 For a bi-axial stress system, the criterion is;
σ₁ - μσ₂ ≥
σ₂ - μσ₁ ≥

 For the design purposes;

σ₁ - μ(σ₂ + σ3) = σ₁ - μσ₂ =
σ3 - μ(σ₁ + σ₂) = σ₂ - μσ₁ =
Graphical representation
 Let's consider a two-dimensional stress
system
 And assume that = = (yield stress)
y
-μ = =y
-μ= =y

In these above two equations which

represent the equation of a straight line and
are +ve i.e., they lie in 1st quadrant.
 Considering the figure;
 At the point A , =0. If this value is
substituted in equation (1), we obtain the
location of point A i.e. OA =y
 The location of point D is obtained by substituting = 0 in equation (2).

Hence OD = y
 For point E, substitute this value of in equation (1), we get = (1 + μ).
y

Hence DE = y(1+μ).
 Join A to E and produce both sides i.e., towards point G and point L.
 For point F, = OA = , Substitute = in equation (ii),
y y

Hence AF = y(1 + μ).

 Join D to F and produce both sides i.e., towards point G and H
 For third quadrant, equations (1) and (2) can be written as

- μ = -y ...(3) - μ= -y ...(4)
 By using these equations, the locations of points B, C, K and L can be obtained.
Points B and K can be joined and produced both sides.
 Similarly point L and C can be joined
and produced both sides. The points J,
L and H can be obtained.
 We will get a parallelogram HGLJ as
shown which represents the graphical
representation of maximum strain
theory.
 The failure of the material will occur if
any point having co-ordinates (, ) falls
outside parallelogram HGLJ.

Example
The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200 N/mm 2 (tensile),
100 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic
limit in simple tension is 200 N/mm2, determine whether the failure of the
material will occur according to maximum principal strain theory. Take Poisson’s
ratio = 0.3
3. Maximum Shear Stress Theory
This theory is also called Coulomb Guest's or Tresca's theory
 It states that the material will fail when the maximum shear stress (τmax) in
the complex system reaches the value of maximum shear stress in simple
tension at the elastic limit.
 The maximum shear stress is equal to half the difference between the
maximum principal stress and the minimum principal stress
 The maximum shear stress at elastic limit is half the stress at the elastic limit
in simple tension
τmax = [ ] >=
(σ₁ σ3 )>=
In design, σ₁ σ3 =
 This theory gives good correlation with the results of experiments on ductile
materials such as steel
 It gives satisfactory results for ductile materials particularly in case of shafts.

 The theory does not give accurate results for the state of stress of pure shear.

 The theory is not applicable in the case where the state of stress consists of tri-
axial tensile stresses of nearly equal magnitude.

Example
A cylindrical shell made of mild steel plate and 1.2 m in diameter is to be subjected to
an internal pressure of 1.5 MN/m2. If the material yields at 200 MN/m2, calculate the
thickness of the plate basing on the maximum shear stress theory, assuming a factor
of safety 3.
Graphical representation of the theory
Failures according to this theory occur as follows:
(i) if 1 and are like (i.e.., they are in 1st and 3rd
quadrant), the maximum shear stress is 1
or .Hence failure is represented by 1st quadrant
and 3rd quadrant.
(ii) The lines are drawn according to above
equations in the 1st and 3rd quadrant. In first
quadrant, line AE represent the equation 1
whereas line DE represent the equation = 0. In
third quadrant, line CF represent the equation 1 =
0 and line BF represent the equation ( - 1)
(ii) If 1 and are of opposite sign (i.e. one is +ve and other is -ve which means
they are in 2nd and 4th quadrant), the maximum shear stress is half the
difference between 1 and . This represents the line CD. The boundary ABFCDEA
shown gives the graphical representation of maximum shear stress theory. The
failure of the material will occur if any point having co-ordinates (1, ) falls
outside the boundary.
4. Maximum Strain Energy Theory
This theory was proposed by Beltrani-Haigh.
 It states that the failure of a material occurs when the total strain energy in
the material reaches the total strain energy of the material at the elastic
limit in simple tension.
In a 3D stress system, the strain energy per unit volume is given by;
U = [σ₁2 + σ22 + σ32 - 2μ(σ₁σ2 + σ₁σ3 + σ2σ3)]
 At the point of failure;

[σ₁2 + σ22 + σ32 - 2μ(σ₁σ2 + σ₁σ3 + σ2σ3)] =

 In 2D stress system (σ2 = 0) the above equation reduce to;

σ₁2 + σ32 - 2μσ₁σ3 =

 For the design;

σ₁2 + σ32 - 2μσ₁σ3

 This theory is applicable to ductile materials particularly in the case of pressure
vessels.
 The theory is not applicable to materials whose is different from .

 If a body is subjected to high hydrostatic pressure, it gives no elastic deformation.

σ=
 Yield stress of the material =
Example
The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200MPa (tensile), 100MPa
(tensile) and 50 MPa (compressive). If the stress at the elastic limit is in simple tension,
and is 200MPa, determine whether the failure of the material will occur or not
according to maximum strain energy theory.
-Take Poisson's ratio as 0.3.
Solution;
U = [σ₁2 + σ22 + σ32 - 2μ(σ₁σ2 + σ₁σ3 + σ2σ3)]
U = [(200)2 + (100)2 + (-50)2 - 2(0.3)((200x100)+(100x-50)+ (-50x200)]
U = [49500]
Also
U y= =
For safe condition : U ≤ Uy, 49500 > 40000 , Hence failure will occur.
Maximum Strain Energy Theory
Graphical representation
The criterion of failure for two-dimensional
stress system according to this theory is
1
2
+ 2 - 2μ (1) = σy2
(2 )2 - 2μ = 1
The above is the equation of an ellipse with
center at the origin and axes inclined at 45°
as shown.
The ellipse is inscribed in the parallelogram
GLKHG given by maximum strain theory. The
failure of the material will occur if any point
having co-ordinates (1, ) falls outside this
boundary.
Distortion Energy Theorem
 It is also known as shear strain energy theorem
 The total strain energy per unit volume is given by equation;

U = [(σ12 + σ22 + σ32) – 2µ(σ1σ2 + σ2σ3 + σ3σ1)]

The above energy can be split up into the two strain energies as:
(i) Strain energy of distortion (shear strain energy)
(ii) Strain energy of uniform compression or tension (Volumetric strain energy or
energy of dilation)
The principal strains (e1, e2, e3) in the direction of principal stresses (, σ2 and σ3)
respectively are given by;
e1 = [(σ1 – µ(σ2 + σ3)], e2 = [(σ2 – µ(σ3 + σ1)], e3 = [(σ3 – µ(σ1 + σ2)]
Adding, we get
e1 + e2 + e3 = volumetric strain (ev)
ev = (1 – 2µ)
Now two important points are;
(a) If = 0, then ev = 0.(b)If , then e1 = e2 = e3

Energy of distortion and energy of dilation;

Strain energy of uniform tension
= (σ1 + σ2 + σ3)2 x(1- 2µ)
Strain energy of distortion per unit volume = Total strain energy-strain energy of
uniform tension
= [(σ12 + σ22 + σ32) – 2µ(σ1σ2 + σ2σ3 + σ3σ1)] - (σ1 + σ2 + σ3)2 x(1- 2µ)
 = [(σ1 – σ2)2 + (σ2 – σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2]
But E = 2C(1 + μ)
Hence the equation becomes
= [(σ1 – σ2)2 + (σ2 – σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2]

Strain energy of distortion per unit volume

= [(σ1 – σ2)2 + (σ2 – σ3)2 + (σ3 – σ1)2]
Equation is also known as the equation of shear strain energy.
5. Maximum Shear Strain Energy Theory or Distortion
Energy Theory
This theory was proposed by Von Mises-Henky.
 It states that the elastic failure occurs when the shear strain energy per unit
volume in the stressed material reaches a value equal to the shear strain energy
per unit volume at the elastic limit point in tension.
 The theory gives best results for ductile materials particularly in case of pure
shear;
σyt = σyc
 Shear strain energy per unit volume due to principal stresses σ₁, σ2 and σ3;

US = [σ₁2 + σ22 + σ32 - (σ₁σ2 + σ₁σ3 + σ2σ3)]

 US = [(σ₁ - σ2)2+ (σ₁ - σ3)2 + (σ2 - σ3)2]

US = [(σ₁ - σ2)2 + (σ₁ - σ3)2 + (σ2 - σ3)2]

 For the simple tension at the elastic limit point, ( σ₁ = σyt, σ2 = σ3 = 0), the
shear strain energy per unit volume is given by;
USʹ = [(σyt - 0)2 + (σyt - 0)2 + (0 - 0)2]

USʹ = .2σyt2

USʹ =

 Equating the two strain energies;

(σ₁ - σ2)2 + (σ₁ - σ3)2 + (σ2 - σ3)2 = 2.σyt2

 In 2D stress system (σ2 = 0) , the above equation reduces to;

σ₁2 + σ32 - σ₁σ3 = σyt2

Example; The principal stresses at a point in an elastic material are 200 N/mm 2
(tensile), 100 N/mm2 (tensile) and 50 N/mm2 (compressive). If the stress at the elastic
limit in simple tension is 200 N/mm2, determine whether the failure of the material
will occur or not according to maximum shear strain energy. Take Poisson’s ratio = 0.3

Points to note on theories of failure;

 When one of the principal stresses at a point is large in comparison to the other,
all the failure theories give nearly the same result.
 When a member is subjected to uni-axial tension, all the failure theories give the
same result.
Maximum Shear Strain Theory
 The criterion of failure according to Graphical representation
this theory is given by;
(2 )2 - 2μ = 1
This is an equation of ellipse with
center at the origin and axes inclined at
45° as shown.
 The boundary of the maximum strain
energy theory is shown in as
AFBGCHDEA. The failure of the
material will occur if any point having
co-ordinates (1, ) falls out side this
boundary.
Design conditions for various failure
theories
Failure theory Proposed by Condition for design

Maximum principal stress Rankine, Lame

theory σ₁ σ

Maximum principal strain Saint Venant (σ₁ - μσ2)

theory
Maximum shear stress Coulomb Guest,
theory Tresca
Maximum strain energy Beltrami-Haigh (σ₁2 + σ22 - 2μσ₁σ2) 2

theory

Distortion energy theory Huber-Henky-Von Mises (σ₁2 + σ22 - σ₁σ2) 2

Important Points From Theories Of Failure Used In Design
 The maximum principal stress theory should be used in case of brittle
materials such as cast Iron.
 The maximum strain theory gives reliable results in particular cases, hence
this theory should not be used in general since it becomes invalid in certain
cases.
 The maximum shear stress or maximum shear strain energy theories should
be used for ductile materials. These theories give a good approximation,
When the mean principal stress is compressive, the shear strain energy
theory should be preferred.
 The maximum shear stress theory should not be applied in the case where the
state of stress consists of tri-axial tensile stresses of nearly equal magnitude,
reducing the shearing stress to a small magnitude. In this case the failure
would be brittle fracture rather than by yielding.
Applications of theories of failure
 Design of shafts, gears and bolts. This through Von Mises and Tresca theories
as these are ductile materials subjected to yielding
 In automotive engineering to design components such as chassis and
suspension by use of von mises as that gives accurate prediction for
complex loading.
 Aerospace engineering in design of structures such as wings, fuselage by use
of Rankine theory
 Used in the manufacture of cutting tools as these are subjected to high strain
and stress during operation.
 Used to design pressure vessels e.g. boilers and gas cylinders among others
Assignment
 At a section of a mild steel shaft, the maximum torque is 8437.5 Nm and maximum
bending moment is 5062.5 Nm. The diameter of shaft is 90 mm and the stress the
elastic limit in simple tension for the material of the shaft is 220 N/mm2. Determine
whether the failure of the material will occur or not according to maximum shear
stress theory. If not, then find the factor of safety.

 A bolt is under an axial thrust of 7.2 kN together with a transverse shear force of 3.6
kN. Calculate the diameter of the bolt according to :
(i) Maximum principal stress theory,
(ii) (ii) Maximum shear stress theory,
(iii) (iii) Maximum strain energy theory
Take elastic limit in simple tension = 202 N/mm2, factor of safety = 3 and Poisson’s
ratio = 0.3.
 According to the theory of maximum shear stress, determine the diameter of a
bolt which is subjected to an axial pull of 9 kN together with a transverse shear
force of 4.5 kN. Elastic limit in tension is 225 N/mm2, factor of safety = 3 and
Poisson’s ratio = 0.3.

 A material subjected to a simple tension test shows an elastic limit of 240

MN/m2. Calculate the factor of safety provided if the principal stresses set up in a
complex two- dimensional stress system are limited to 140 MN/m 2 tensile and 45
MN/m2 compressive. The appropriate theories of failure on which your answer
should be based are:
(a) the maximum shear stress theory
(b) the maximum shear strain energy theory
 Strength Of Materials by Bansal R.K
Distortion Energy Theory | Maximum Shear Strain
Energy Theory | Theories of Failure | Designgekz on
References YouTube
Mechanics Of Materials 1 by E.J.HEARN
Mechanics Of Materials Ninth Edition by R.C. HIBBELER
 The smart are
always stressed.

-Kagaba Andrew

-Excerpt
Thank You