SE Computer
Course Name :Principle of Programming Language
Course Code: 210256
Unit 2
Structuring the Data, Computations and Program
● Elementary Data Types : Primitive data Types, Character String types, User Defined Ordinal Types,
Array types, Associative Arrays, Record Types, Union Types, Pointer and reference Type.
● Expression and Assignment Statements: Arithmetic expression, Overloaded Operators, Type
conversions, Relational and Boolean Expressions, Short Circuit Evaluation, Assignment Statements,
Mixed mode Assignment.
● Statement level Control Structures: Selection Statements, Iterative Statements, Unconditional
Branching.
● Subprograms: Fundamentals of Sub Programs, Design Issues for Subprograms, Local referencing
Environments, Parameter passing methods. Abstract Data Types and Encapsulation Construct: Design
issues for Abstraction, Parameterized Abstract Data types, Encapsulation Constructs, Naming
Encapsulations
Department of Computer Engineering
Unit 2
Statement level Control Structures:
● Selection Statements,
● Iterative Statements,
● Unconditional Branching.
Department of Computer Engineering
Levels of Control Flow
■ Within expressions (Part 1)
■ Among program units (Part 2)
■ Among program statements (Part 3)
1-4
Control Statements: Evolution
• FORTRAN I control statements were based directly on IBM
704 hardware
• Much research and argument in the 1960s about the issue
• One important result: It was proven that all algorithms
represented by flowcharts can be coded with only two-way
selection and pretest logical loops
1-5
Control Structure
• A control structure is a control statement and the statements
whose execution it controls
• Design question
– Should a control structure have multiple entries?
1-6
Selection Statements
• A selection statement provides the means of choosing
between two or more paths of execution
• Two general categories:
– Two-way selectors
– Multiple-way selectors
1-7
Two-Way Selection Statements
• General form:
if control_expression
then clause
else clause
• Design Issues:
– What is the form and type of the control expression?
– How are the then and else clauses specified?
– How should the meaning of nested selectors be specified?
1-8
The Control Expression
• If the then reserved word or some other syntactic
marker is not used to introduce the then clause, the
control expression is placed in parentheses
• In C89, C99, Python, and C++, the control expression can be
arithmetic
• In languages such as Ada, Java, Ruby, and C#, the control
expression must be Boolean
1-9
Clause Form
• In many contemporary languages, the then and else clauses can be
single statements or compound statements
• In Perl, all clauses must be delimited by braces (they must be
compound)
• In Fortran 95, Ada, and Ruby, clauses are statement sequences
• Python uses indentation to define clauses
if x > y :
x = y
print "case 1"
1-10
Nesting Selectors
• Java example
if (sum == 0)
if (count == 0)
result = 0;
else result = 1;
• Which if gets the else?
• Java's static semantics rule: else matches with the
nearest if
1-11
Nesting Selectors (continued)
• To force an alternative semantics, compound statements may be used:
if (sum == 0) {
if (count == 0)
result = 0;
}
else result = 1;
• The above solution is used in C, C++, and C#
• Perl requires that all then and else clauses to be compound
1-12
Nesting Selectors (continued)
• Statement sequences as clauses: Ruby
if sum == 0 then
if count == 0 then
result = 0
else
result = 1
end
end
1-13
Nesting Selectors (continued)
• Python
if sum == 0 :
if count == 0 :
result = 0
else :
result = 1
1-14
Multiple-Way Selection Statements
• Allow the selection of one of any number of statements or
statement groups
• Design Issues:
1. What is the form and type of the control expression?
2. How are the selectable segments specified?
3. Is execution flow through the structure restricted to include just
a single selectable segment?
4. How are case values specified?
5. What is done about unrepresented expression values?
1-15
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples
Design choices for C’s switch statement
1. Control expression can be only an integer type
2. Selectable segments can be statement sequences, blocks, or
compound statements
3. Any number of segments can be executed in one execution of the
construct (there is no implicit branch at the end of selectable
segments)
4. default clause is for unrepresented values (if there is no default, the
whole statement does nothing)
1-16
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples
• C, C++, and Java
switch (expression) {
case const_expr_1: stmt_1;
…
case const_expr_n: stmt_n;
[default: stmt_n+1]
}
Copyright © 2009 Addison-Wesley. All rights reserved. 1-17
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples C, C++, Java
switch (index) {
case 1:
Without the break-
case 3: odd+=1; statement control
sumodd+=index; continues to the next
break;
case 2:
alternative.
case 4: even+=1;
sumeven+=index;
break;
default:cout << “Error in switch,
index = “ << index; break;
}
1-18
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples
• C#
– Differs from C in that it has a static semantics rule that
disallows the implicit execution of more than one segment
– Each selectable segment must end with an unconditional
branch (goto or break)
– Also, in C# the control expression and the case constants
can be strings
1-19
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples c#
switch (value) {
case -1: Every selectable segment must
Negatives++; end with an explicit
break; unconditional branch
case 0: statement: either a break, which
Zeros++; transfers control out of the
goto case 1; switch construct, or a goto,
case 1: which can transfer control to
Positives++; one of the selectable
break; segments (or virtually anywhere
default: else).
Console.WriteLine(“Error in switch \n”);
Break; }
1-20
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples
• Ada design choices:
1. Expression can be any ordinal type
2. Segments can be single or compound
3. Only one segment can be executed per execution of the construct
4. Unrepresented values are not allowed
• Constant List Forms:
1. A list of constants
2. Can include:
- Subranges
- Boolean OR operators (|)
1-21
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples Ada
case x of
when North => x:=East;
when East => x:=South;
when South => x:=West;
when West => x:=North;
end;
1-22
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples Pascal
type direction=(North,East,South,West);
var x:direction;
…
case x of
North: x:=East;
East: x:=South;
South: x:=West;
West: x:=North
end;
1-23
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples Ruby
Case
when Boolean-expression then expression
…
when Boolean-expression then expression
[else expression]
end
1-24
Multiple-Way Selection: Examples : two forms of Ruby
1. One form uses when conditions
leap = case
when year % 400 == 0 then true
when year % 100 == 0 then false
else year % 4 == 0
end
2. The other uses a case value and when values
case in_val
when -1 then neg_count++
when 0 then zero_count++
when 1 then pos_count++
else puts "Error – in_val is out of range"
end
1-25
Multiple-Way Selection Using if
• Multiple Selectors can appear as direct extensions to two-way
selectors, using else-if clauses, for example in Python:
if count < 10 :
bag1 = True
elif count < 100 :
bag2 = True
elif count < 1000 :
bag3 = True
1-26
Multiple-Way Selection Using if
• The Python example can be written as a Ruby case
case
when count < 10 then bag1 = true
when count < 100 then bag2 = true
when count < 1000 then bag3 = true
end
1-27
Iterative Statements
• The repeated execution of a statement or
compound statement is accomplished either by
iteration or recursion
• General design issues for iteration control
statements:
1. How is iteration controlled?
2. Where is the control mechanism in the loop?
1-28
Counter-Controlled Loops
• A counting iterative statement has a loop variable, and a
means of specifying the initial and terminal, and stepsize
values
• Design Issues:
1. What are the type and scope of the loop variable?
2. Should it be legal for the loop variable or loop parameters to be
changed in the loop body, and if so, does the change affect loop control?
3. Should the loop parameters be evaluated only once, or once for
every iteration?
1-29
Iterative Statements: Examples
• FORTRAN 95 syntax
DO label var = start, finish [, stepsize]
• Stepsize is 1 by default
• Parameters can be expressions
• Design choices:
1. Loop variable must be INTEGER
2. The loop variable cannot be changed in the loop, but the parameters can;
because they are evaluated only once, it does not affect loop control
3. Loop parameters are evaluated only once
1-30
Iterative Statements: Examples
• FORTRAN 95 : a second form:
[name:] Do variable = initial, terminal [,stepsize]
…
End Do [name]
- Cannot branch into either of Fortran’s Do statements
1-31
Iterative Statements: Examples
• Design choices:
○ Type of the loop variable is that of the discrete range (A discrete
range is a sub-range of an integer or enumeration type).
○ Loop variable does not exist outside the loop
○ The loop variable cannot be changed in the loop, but the
discrete range can; it does not affect loop control
○ The discrete range is evaluated just once
• Cannot branch into the loop body
1-32
Iterative Statements: Examples
• Ada
for var in [reverse] discrete_range loop
...
end loop
Count: Float := 1.35
For Count in 1..10 loop
sum:=sum+Count;
End loop;
1-33
Iterative Statements: Examples
• C-based languages
for ([expr_1] ; [expr_2] ; [expr_3]) statement
• The expressions can be whole statements, or even statement
sequences, with the statements separated by commas
• The value of a multiple-statement expression is the value of the last
statement in the expression
• If the second expression is absent, it is an infinite loop
1-34
Iterative Statements: Examples
• Design choices:
■ There is no explicit loop variable
■ Everything can be changed in the loop
■ The first expression is evaluated once, but the other two are
evaluated with each iteration
1-35
Iterative Statements: Examples
• C++ differs from C in two ways:
1. The control expression can also be Boolean
2. The initial expression can include variable
definitions (scope is from the definition to the end of
the loop body)
• Java and C#
– Differs from C++ in that the control expression must
be Boolean
1-36
Iterative Statements: Examples Python
for loop_variable in object:
- loop body
[else:
- else clause]
● The object is often a range, which is either a list of values in brackets ([2, 4,
6]), or a call to the range function (range(5)), which returns 0, 1, 2, 3, 4
● The loop variable takes on the values specified in the given range, one
for each iteration
● The else clause, which is optional, is executed if the loop terminates
normally
1-37
Iterative Statements: Logically-Controlled Loops
• Repetition control is based on a Boolean
expression
• Design issues:
– Pretest or posttest?
– Should the logically controlled loop be a special case of
the counting loop statement or a separate statement?
1-38
Iterative Statements: Logically-Controlled Loops: Examples
• C and C++ have both pretest and posttest forms, in which
the control expression can be arithmetic:
• Java is like C and C++, except the control expression
must be Boolean (and the body can only be entered at the
beginning -- Java has no goto
1-39
while (ctrl_expr)
loop body
do
loop body
while (ctrl_expr)
Iterative Statements: Logically-Controlled Loops: Examples
• Ada has a pretest version, but no posttest
• FORTRAN 95 has neither
• Perl and Ruby have two pretest logical loops, while
and until. Perl also has two posttest loops
1-41
Iterative Statements: User-Located Loop Control Mechanisms
• Sometimes it is convenient for the programmers to decide a
location for loop control (other than top or bottom of the loop)
• Simple design for single loops (e.g., break)
• Design issues for nested loops
1. Should the conditional be part of the exit?
2. Should control be transferable out of more than one loop?
1-42
Iterative Statements: User-Located Loop Control Mechanisms
OuterLoop:
for (row = 0; row < numRows; row++)
for (col = 0; col < numCols; col++) {
sum += mat[row][col];
if (sum > 1000.0)
break outerLoop;
1-43
Iterative Statements: User-Located Loop Control Mechanisms
while (sum < 1000)
{
getnext(value);
if (value < 0) break;
sum += value;
}
1-44
Iterative Statements: User-Located Loop Control Mechanisms
break and continue
• C , C++, Python, Ruby, and C# have unconditional unlabeled exits
(break)
• Java and Perl have unconditional labeled exits (break in Java, last in
Perl)
• C, C++, and Python have an unlabeled control statement, continue, that
skips the remainder of the current iteration, but does not exit the loop
• Java and Perl have labeled versions of continue
1-45
Iterative Statements: Iteration Based on Data Structures
• Number of elements of in a data structure control loop
iteration
• Control mechanism is a call to an iterator function that
returns the next element in some chosen order, if there is one;
else loop is terminate
1-46
Iterative Statements: Iteration Based on Data Structures
• C's for can be used to build a user-defined iterator:
for (p=root; p==NULL; traverse(p)){
}
1-47
Iterative Statements: Iteration Based on Data Structures
(continued)
PHP
- current points at one element of the array
- next moves current to the next element
- reset moves current to the first element
1-48
Iterative Statements: Iteration Based on Data Structures
(continued)
Java
• For any collection that implements the Iterator interface
• next moves the pointer into the collection
• hasNext is a predicate
• remove deletes an element
Perl has a built-in iterator for arrays and hashes, foreach
1-49
Iterative Statements: Iteration Based on Data Structures (continued)
• Java 5.0 (uses for, although it is called foreach)
- For arrays and any other class that implements
Iterable interface,
e.g., ArrayList
for (String myElement : myList) { … }
1-50
Iterative Statements: Iteration Based on Data Structures (continued)
• C#’s foreach statement iterates on the elements of arrays and
other collections:
Strings[] = strList = {"Bob", "Carol", "Ted"};
foreach (Strings name in strList)
Console.WriteLine ("Name: {0}", name);
- The notation {0} indicates the position in the string to be displayed
1-51
Unconditional Branching
• Transfers execution control to a specified place in the program
• Represented one of the most heated debates in 1960’s and 1970’s
• Major concern:
○ Readability
○ Some languages do not support goto statement (e.g., Java)
○ C# offers goto statement (can be used in switch statements)
○ Loop exit statements are restricted and somewhat camouflaged
goto’s
1-52
