Introduction

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 Definition of terms
• Medical entomology:- is a science which deals with
medically important insects & arthropods.
• Vectors:- organisms which are involved in the
transmission of disease causing agents.
• Vector borne diseases:- such pathogens transmitted
by vectors.
Two types of vectors.
1. Biological vectors:- transmission is preceded by
multiplication or development of the parasite in to
mature stage. Eg. Mosquito.
1. Mechanical vectors:- involved in mechanical transfer
of pathogenic organisms. No multiplication or
development. Eg house fly

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History and background of vector control
• At the end of the nineteenth century, it was discovered
that certain species of insects, other arthropods and
freshwater snails were responsible for the transmission
of some important diseases.

• Since effective vaccines or drugs were not always

available for the prevention or treatment of these
diseases, control of transmission often had to rely mainly
on control of the vector.

• Early control programmes included the screening of

houses, the use of mosquito nets, the drainage or filling
of swamps and other water bodies used by insects for
breeding, and the application of oil or Paris green to
breeding places.
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 History..
• The discovery of the insecticide
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) in the 1940s was a
major breakthrough in the control of vector-borne
diseases.

• The insecticide was highly effective for killing indoor-

resting mosquitoes when it was sprayed on the walls of
houses.
• Moreover, it was cheap to produce and remained active
over a period of many months.

• DDT also appeared to be effective and economical in the

control of other biting flies and midges and of infestations
with fleas, lice, bedbugs and triatomine bugs.

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 History..
• In the 1950s and early 1960s,programmes
were organized in many countries which
attempted to control or eradicate the most
important vector-borne diseases (malaria,
Chagas disease and leishmaniasis) by the
large-scale application of DDT.
• Because of their high costs, these
programmes were generally planned for
limited periods of time.

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 History …
• The objective was to eradicate the diseases or to
reduce transmission to such a low level that
control could be maintained through the general
health care facilities without the need for additional
control measures.
• Initially these programmes were largely successful
and in some countries it proved possible to
interrupt or reduce the vector control activities.
• However, in most countries, success was short-
lived; often the vectors developed resistance to
the pesticides in use, creating a need for new,
more expensive chemicals.
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 History …
• Suspension of control programmes
eventually led to a return to significant
levels of disease transmission.

• Permanent successes were mostly

obtained where the environment was
changed in such a way that the vector was
prevented from breeding or resting.

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 History …
Alternatives to the use of insecticides
• Interest in alternatives such as
environmental management and biological
control, has been revived because of
increasing resistance to the commonly
used insecticides among important vector
species and
because of concerns about the effects
of DDT and certain other insecticides on
the environment.

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 History …
• Environmental management involves altering the
breeding sites of the vectors, for instance by
filling ponds and marshes on a permanent basis
or by repeatedly removing vegetation from
ponds and canals and cleaning premises.
• Biological control is the use of living organisms
or their products to control vector and pest
insects. The organisms used include viruses,
bacteria, protozoa, fungi, plants, parasitic
worms, predatory mosquitoes and fish.

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 History …
• The aim is generally to kill larvae without
polluting the environment. Biological
control often works best when used in
combination with environmental
management.

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 Control of Mosquitoes and other
biting Diptera
• These are vectors of malaria,
leishmaniasis, filariasis, onchocerciasis,
dengue, yellow fever and other diseases.

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 Vector borne diseases
Anopheles species- causes
1. Biting nuisance
2. malaria.
• 400 million people suffer clinical illness
• 1.4-2.4 million people die/year
• 80% of mortality occur in Africa
• 65% of Ethiopian population is at risk
• Important vector-Female Anopheles gambiae
–Anthropophlic –feed on human
- endophagic- feeding habit in side the house
-endophlic- rest inside the house till blood digestion.
• Anopheles transmit the four parasites
. plasmodium falciparum, p. vivax, p. malaria and p.ovale 12
• Plasmodium life cycle includes both sexual and
asexual development.
• The life cycle has two forms, Sporogony and
schizogony.
• Sporogony is sexual phase that occurs in female
anopheles mosquito.
• Sporozoites which are infective stage, found in
salivary gland.
• Schizogony: is Asexual stage which takes place
in human.
• Schizogony after sporozoites enter in to blood of
human. Farther developed in to merozoite in
RBC and picked by mosquito during blood meal.
• Treatment, chloroquine, quinin, quartum.

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2. Filariasis: anopheles species transmit filarial warms of
Wuchereria bancrofti, Burgia malayi and Burgia timori all
of which causes filariasis in humans.
It is a disease that adult warms reside in lymphatic
channels of lower limb.
W.Bancrofti occur in urban and B.malayi mainly occur in
rural areas.
• Both occur in two basic forms: nocturnal periodic and
nocturnal sub-periodic. most of the micro-filarial worms
during the day in the blood vessels and at mid-night
migrate to the peripheral blood system and lymph
vessels. b/c of this behavior it is mainly ingested by
night-biting mosquitos like anopheles.
• During day microfilaria remain in pulmonary circulation.
• Treatment surgical removal of elephantoid tissue and
Diethylcarbamazine (DEC)
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3. Arboviruses: “arthropod borne virus” like
O’nyong nyong (local African word meaning
“joint-breaker”) was identified in Uganda and
kenya, later in East &central Africa.
• Control measure:
1.Targeting larva _predatary fish eg Gambusia
-Draining swamps and marsh areas.
2. Targeting adults.- Residual house spray Using
DDT, Organophosphate insecticides.
-pyrethroid impregnated bed nets.

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Culex species-
Medical importance
1. Biting nuisance
2. Elephantiasis (lymphatic filariasis) due to W.bancrofti
is common through out tropical africa.
Culex quinquefasciatus species bite at night and rest
indoors before and after feeding. It breads in partially
blocked drains, ditches, in water of polluted with
organic debris, mainly associated with urbanization.
3. Encephalitis viruses. Transmitted to humans, birds,
horses and pigs by culex mosquito.
Control: improving sanitation, installing proper sewage
system, placing a layer of expanded polystyrene beds
in to pit latrine w/c prevents female ovipositing. And
larva will die due to suffocation. Needs very little skill
only to boil the polystrene
-residual house spray for adults
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Aedes mosquito species:- breads in small water
containing container & not far away from living area. Bite
mainly during day or early evening and out doors.
Important vectors,- Aedes Aegypti
-Aedes albopectus
-Aedes Africanus
-Aedes simpsoni
• Aedes Aegypti –anthropophlic, exophagic and exophilic.
medical importance
1. Biting nuisance
2.Yellow fever- zoonosis from forest monkey to people
Aedes Africanus(b/n forest monkey) to aedes simpsoni
(monkey to human) to Aedes agypti (urban cycle, human
to human)
3. Dengue haemorrhagic fever
4. Encephalitis viruses
5. Filariasis
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Phlebotomine species (sand flies):- Medical importance
1. Annoyance cause serious but localized biting nuisance
2. Leishmaniasis
– Cutanneous L. –affect skin
- Mucocutaneous L. affect cartilage, ear
-Diffuse cutaneous L. caused L.aethopica in Ethiopia and
Kenya or L.amazonensis in south America.
- visceral L. (Kala-azar) affect abdomen, spleen etc.
caused by leishmania donovani
3. Bartonellosis some times called Oroya fever or
Carrion’s disease is encountered in arid mountainous
areas of the Andes in Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. It is
caused by small rod-like micro organism Bartonella
bacilliformis and transmitted by Lutzomyia verrucarum.
Transmission is probably entirely by contamination of the
mouth parts.
4. Sand fly fever: some times called papataci fever or 3 day
fever.
Typical Trans-ovarian transmission. Infected egg to adult 18
Control measure:
• control on larva is impossible because the
breading site is not clear
• Control on adult sand flies out door
fumigation with insecticide is one method
but it is also difficult because of resting
position.
• Insect repellent is diethyltoluamide (deet),
dimethylphathalate (dimp) or
trimethylpentanediol
• Use ITN are some of control methods.

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Simullidae species (Black flies)
• Bread in fresh running water bodies.
Medical importance
1. Annoyance (painful biting problem)
2.Onchocerciasis (river blindness) ,caused by filarial
parasite Onchocerca volvulus. It is not zoonosis and
95% all cases occur in Africa.
-Simulium damnosum complex is the most important
vector.
• Adult warms (male & female) in deep subcutaneous and
connective tissue, and it may be reside in superficial
layers of skin, eye.
• Treatment Incision of nodules to remove adult warm and
DEC.

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Prevention & control
• Previously, Application of insecticide (DDT) to a few
selected sites of water courses 15- 30 minute, then the
dawn stream simuliidae will be killed but the
accumulation of DDT in food chain is not recommended
instead, organophosphate such as temephos (abate) is
usually recommended.
• Also air crafts or helicopter is used to spray large area of
river with abate chemical.
• Onchocerciasis control program (OCP) sustainable
community based ivermectin treatment orally once or
twice a year.
Glossinidae (Tsetse flies)
African sleeping sickness or human trypanosomiasis caused
by T. brucei rhodesians
- T. brucei Gambians
Animal trypanosomiasis caused by T.evansi and
T.congolense.
It is zoonosis , bovine to human being. 21
• Control of tsetse flies aimed at the adults
• Using traps and insecticide-impregnated
screens:
-are effective means of tsetse control.
-are cheap,
-easy to transport, and
-completely safe for the user and the
environment.

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Triatomine bugs. Cause chagas disease caused by T.cruzi
some times called South American trypanosomiasis. It is
transmitted by faeces contaminating the scratched or
abrasions of skin, but, bite of the insect didn’t transmit .
Anaplura (body lice). Both male and female are infective
1. Pediculosis- some times known as vagabond’s disease
or morbus errorum.
2. Louse borne epidemic typhus –caused by Rickettsia
prowazeki , people infected when the lice crashed or
feces rubbed or scratched in to abrasions of skin or
inhalation of very fine powdered dry faeces.
3. Trench fever - caused by Bartonella quintana not
common and non fatal disease
4. Louse- borne epidemic relapsing fever- Borrelia
recurrentis, transmission is similar to above.
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Siphonaptera (Fleas)
Medical importance
1. Flea nuisance- common one cat flea,
Ctenocephalides felis.
2. Plague (bubonic plague)- caused by yersinia
pestis primarily a disease of rodents.
Transmitted by bite of xenopsylla cheopis.
3. Flea-borne endemic typhus (Murine typhus)
–caused by Rickettsia typhi and transmited by
crushed fleas or faeces contamination to
mucus membranes.
4. Cestodes – dipylidium caninum is the
commonest tape warm of dogs and cats and
occasionally occurs in children.
Children may swallow cat and dogs fleas.
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Tunga penetrans –jigger or sand-flea does
not transmit disease to people but is a
nuisance b/c females burrow in to the skin.
Ticks -- soft ticks and hard ticks
• Tick borne relapsing fever caused by
Borella species transmitted by soft tick
• Q fever a reckettsial disease caused by
Coxiella burneti
hard ticks
• Tick paralysis etc..
• Arboviruses
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May/2008 Vector Control (Dr.Netsanet W.) 26
Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
A) Mosquitos
-Differ from the other biting Diptera in having
a long slender body,
Long legs and long needle-shaped mouthparts.

-The wings sometimes have apparent patterns of

scales.
-The adult insects measure between 2 mm and 12.5
mm in length.
-Some species bite in the morning or evening and at
night; others feed during the day.
-Species may bite indoors or out of doors.
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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
B) Blackflies (Simulium)
• have humped thorax,
• are stout-bodied,
• about 1–5 mm long, and
• usually black, although orange and yellow
species exist.
• have relatively large eyes (dichoptic &/or
holoptic).
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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
• The legs are short,
• the wings are short, broad and colourless.
• bite in daytime, out of doors;
• some species prefer to feed only on
certain parts of the body, for example the
legs or the upper part of the body.

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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
C) Phlebotomine sandflies
• are about 1.5–4 mm long.
• have a hairy appearance,
• conspicuous black eyes and long, stilt-like
legs.
• have a characteristic hopping flight with
many short flights and landings.

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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
• In contrast to all other biting Diptera, the
wings are held erect over the body when
at rest.
• usually bite after dark, but may bite in
daytime during cloudy weather in forests.
• Most species feed outdoors but a few feed
indoors.

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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
D) Tsetse flies
• occur only in tropical Africa.
• are yellowish or dark brown,
• medium-sized flies, 6–15 mm in length.
• bite only in daytime.
• They can be distinguished from other
large biting Diptera by their forward-
pointing mouthparts.
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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
E) Biting midges: tiny swarming fly, biting insect that
can transmit blood-borne diseases.
Family: Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae
• are about 1.5 mm long.
• bite at any time of day or night, but most commonly in
the late afternoon and the early part of the night.
• because of their short mouthparts they are not very
successful in biting through clothing;
• are often observed in swarms around the head, biting
the face.

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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
• Other exposed parts of the body may also
be attacked.
• Most species only feed out of doors.
• They can be a severe nuisance and
• because of their small size they can easily
pass through standard mesh mosquito
nets.

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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
F) Horseflies and deerflies
• Also called the tabanids (tabanus flies),
• are medium- to large-sized flies (6–25 mm
long) and
• are avid (eager) bloodsuckers and
powerful fliers.

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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
• Some species are the largest biting
Diptera, having a wing span of 6.5 cm.
• They vary in colour from very dark to light
and are often iridescent (shining).
• They have a large head with large
conspicuous eyes.
• The mouthparts do not point forward (as in
the tsetse flies) but downward.
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Summary of distinguishing features
of biting Diptera
• The tabanids are especially active in
daytime, in bright sunshine.
• They usually feed outdoors, mostly in
woods and forests.
• Their bites are deep and painful and the
wounds often continue to bleed after the
flies have left.
• They can easily bite through clothings.

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 Control measures
A) Personal protection measures
• These are used by individuals or small
groups of people to protect themselves
from biting insects and the diseases they
may carry,
• They act by preventing contact between
the human body and the insects.
• The equipment is small, portable and
simple to use.
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 Control measures
i) Repellents
• most commonly used methods to
prevent mosquitos and other blood-
sucking pests from biting.
• They are applied directly to the skin or to
clothing and other fabrics such as
bednets and anti-mosquito screens.
• Repellents evaporate much more quickly
than most insecticides.
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 Control measures
• most repellents act by preventing
human–insect contact and do not knock
down or kill insects.
• The duration of protection by a repellent
applied to skin may range from 15
minutes to 10 hours;
• If on clothing and other fabrics the effect
lasts much longer.
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 Control measures
**The effectiveness and duration depend on:
-the type of repellent (active
ingredients and formulation),
-the mode of application,
-local conditions (temperature,
humidity, wind),

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 Control measures
-the attractiveness of individual people to
insects, and
-the sensitivity of the insects to
repellents, each species having its own
specific sensitivity.
-the biting density : the more mosquitoes
there are, the more one is likely to be
bitten.
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• Because of the short period of action,
repellents are mostly applied when insects
start biting.
• Repellents are available as sprays, lotions,
creams, sticks and wipe-on applicators or
tissues.

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 When and where to use
repellents?
• in situations where other protective
measures do not work, are impractical or
are prohibited:
• For people who must be outdoors at night;
• plantation workers at risk during daytime;
• people crossing or approaching areas

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 When and where to use
repellents?
such as swamps, grasslands or forests
infested with mosquitoes or other biting
insects; and so on.
• Repellents are widely available but their
retail price may be too high for daily use
by many people.

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 Types of repellent
Traditional or natural repellents
Eg. Quabericho,
Neem tree, and Aromatic trees.
Modern repellents for application to the
skin
Eg. A repellent-impregnated tissue
Repellent bar ( recently developed
inexpensive repellent & is soap like)
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 Types of repellent
ii) Protective clothing:
• Lighter colours generally attract fewer
insects than darker colours.
• Boots can protect the ankles from biting
insects.

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 Types of repellent..
• Thick socks in combination with long trousers
offer protection when the bottoms of the trousers
are tucked into the socks.
• Some protection is also offered by long sleeved
(covered) shirts, headnets, collars and hats.
• However, some insects can bite through socks
or other clothes; the treatment of clothing with
an insecticide or repellent can discourage this.

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 Types of repellent…
• Since the small biting midges, sandflies
and blackflies are unable to bite through
clothes, even if these are made of thin
material. People active during daytime can
best protect themselves by wearing thin
clothing over as much of the body as
possible and applying repellents to the
parts of the body left exposed.

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 Types of repellent…
• Treated clothing
• Insect-repellent wide-mesh netting
jackets
• Insect-repellent headnets
• Insect-repellent bands and anklets
• Insect-repellent detachable patches of
fabric

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 Types of repellent…
Wide-mesh netting
jackets impregnated
with repellent.
Head nets
impregnated with
repellent provide
protection.
See figures to the right.

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Types of repellent…
• Anklets impregnated
with repellent stop
insects from biting the
ankles, feet and lower
legs.

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 Types of repellent…
iii) Insecticide vaporizers:
• Unlike repellents, only a few insecticides,
such as dichlorvos, have a spatial effect
at normal room temperature.
• However, some insecticides kill or repel
insects at a distance through an airborne
effect when vaporized with a heating
device.
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 Types of repellent…
**Insecticide vaporizers protect against
mosquitos and biting flies by:
— preventing them from entering a
room (deterrent effect);
— irritating and disturbing them after
contact (excito-repellent effect) and
preventing them from biting;
— paralysing or killing them
(insecticidal effect).
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 Types of Insecticide vaporizers
a) Mosquito coils
• Coils are among the most popular and widely
used insecticide vaporizers because they are
easy to use, effective and inexpensive.
• Once lit, coils smolder at a steady rate for 6–8
hours, steadily releasing insecticide into the air.
• Originally, mosquito coils consisted of a mixture
of pyrethrum powder (from The pyrethrum plant),
a combustible killing material, such as sawdust,
and a binder, such as starch.

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 Types of Insecticide vaporizers
• Mosquito coil

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 Type of ….
b) Vaporizing mats
• An electrical heater
unit for vaporizing
insecticide
from mats.

57
 Type of…..
c) Electric liquid
vaporizer

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 Type of….
d) Dichlorvos
dispenser

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 Type of…..
• e) Pressurized spray cans: provide a
convenient method of spraying insecticidal
aerosols in rooms, on mosquito nets, vehicles
and so on, to obtain rapid knock-down of
mosquitoes and other flying insects.

60
 Type…..
• The spray cans
contain a concentrate
of the insecticide in
an organic solvent or
water together with a
liquefied or
compressed gas
propellant.

61
 Type of vector control…
• The spray may contain a “knock-down”
agent to give a rapid effect, a slow-acting
agent that actually kills the insect, and a
synergist—usually piperonyl butoxide—to
increase the activity of the ingredients.

62
 Type of vector control…
Biological control
• involves introducing natural enemies of
biting dipteras, such as
-parasites,
-disease organisms and
-predatory animals.

63
 Type of vector control…
They may include insects, viruses, bacteria,
protozoa, fungi, plants, nematode worms
and fish.
• Such methods may be most effective
when used in combination with others,
such as environmental manipulation or the
application of larvicides that do not harm
the biological control agents.

64
 Type of vector control…
• Several organisms have proved effective
against mosquito larvae. The most
important are:
— fish that eat mosquito larvae
(larvivorous fish);
— predatory mosquitoes of the genus
Toxorhynchites, the larvae of which feed
on other mosquito larvae;
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 Type of vector control…
— dragonflies, the larvae of which feed on
mosquito larvae;
— cyclopoid copepods, small crustaceans
that attack first- and second-instar
larvae of mosquitoes;

66
 Type of vector control…
— nematode worms that are parasites of
mosquito larvae;
— fungi that grow in the bodies of mosquito
larvae;
— bacterial larvicide's, the toxic products of
the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis
H-14 and B. sphaericus;

67
 Type of vector control…
— neem, an oil extract of seeds of the neem
tree, Azadirachta indica, which has
larvicidal properties;
— Azolla, a free-floating fern that can
completely cover water surfaces and
prevent breeding by mosquitos.

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 Type of vector control…
*Of these methods only two have become
widely employed: the use of larvivorous
fish and the use of bacterial larvicides;
a) Larvivorous fish
-feed on mosquito larvae.

69
 Type of vector control…
**Suitable species of fish usually have the
following characteristics:
 preference for mosquito larvae over
other types of food located at the water
surface;
 small size to allow access to shallow
water and penetration into vegetation;

70
 Type of vector control…
 high reproduction rate in small bodies of
water;
 tolerance to pollution, salinity,
temperature fluctuations and
transportation;
 they should preferably originate from the
region where control is to be effected.

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 Advantages and disadvantages
of the use of larvivorous fish

Advantages
• In a suitable environment the larvivorous
fish may establish themselves and provide
a self perpetuating larval control method.

72
 Advantages and disadvantages
of the use of larvivorous fish
• The cost of introducing and maintaining the
fish is generally low and no complicated or
expensive equipment is needed.
• The fish are environmentally clean and do
not render water unsuitable for drinking.

73
 Advantages and disadvantages
of the use of larvivorous fish
Disadvantages
• They are only effective when large numbers
eventually establish themselves and even then
they do not always provide total control.
• Mosquitoes may continue to breed at low
densities.
• For complete control other measures have to be
added, such as the use of larvicides that do not
harm the fish.
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 Advantages and disadvantages
of the use of larvivorous fish
• Larval control with fish may take 1–2 months;
the method is therefore not suitable when quick
results are needed.
• The fish are less effective in waters with much
vegetation or floating garbage; when these are
present, they must be removed.
• The fish have to be reared in special ponds;
transportation and stocking require special care.

75
 b)Bacterial larvicides
i) Bacillus thuringiensis H-14
• The bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis serotype H-
14 (B.t. H-14) produces toxins
which are very effective in killing mosquito and
blackfly larvae after ingestion.
• At normal dosages it is harmless to other
insects, fish, higher animals and humans and
is suitable for use in water used for drinking or
for the irrigation of food crops.
• It is effective against insects that have
developed resistance to chemical larvicides.
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• It breaks down quickly in the environment
and has to be reapplied periodically.
• B.t. H-14 is commonly available as
wettable powder and granules.
• A briquette formulation has recently been
developed which floats on the surface and
releases B.t. H-14 for about 30 days.

77
ii) Bacillus sphaericus
• Another bacterium, Bacillus sphaericus,
also produces a toxin. It has
characteristics similar to those of B.t. H-14
but is more effective in polluted water
while B.t. H-14 is more effective in clean
water.
• It is not effective against blackflies or
Aedes aegypti.
• Unlike B.t. H-14 it is produced as a
formulation containing

78
• living bacteria that multiply even in
polluted water.
• B. sphaericus usually has a longer action
than B.t. H-14.
• It is considered very suitable for the
treatment of breeding sites of Culex
mosquitos in polluted water.

79
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
1) Using traps and insecticide-impregnated
screens:
-are effective means of tsetse control.
-are cheap,
-easy to transport, and
-completely safe for the user and the
environment.

80
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
Once a suitable trap or screen has been
developed for a given area, no special
expertise is needed in order to use it.
• This method is therefore ideally suited for
anyone seeking to provide cheap and
effective community protection.

81
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
Mode of action and design of traps and
screens:
• The flies search for blood-meals or resting
places partly or wholly by sight, and are
attracted by large objects that move or
contrast with the landscape.

82
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• Certain colours, especially blue, attract
many tsetse flies.
• The blue screens of the trap are
contrasted with black screens to make the
flies settle.
• The flies subsequently move towards the
upper part of the trap in the direction of the
light.
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 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• There they may become trapped in a
specially designed bag.
• An effective trap attracts all the flies from a
distance of approximately 50 m, i.e. their
range of vision.

84
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• Migrating flies that pass nearby are also
attracted.
• Thus a trap can remove flies from an area
much larger than the zone of immediate
attraction.
• Flies that enter the trap may die because
of exposure to an insecticide impregnated
in the trap material or because they are
exposed to the sun.
85
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• Impregnated traps have the extra
advantage that flies settling on the outside,
but not entering, are also
killed.
• Attractive odours are available for the
control of certain species that transmit
animal trypanosomiasis (Glossina
morsitans group).
86
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• The impregnated screen, a simplification
of the impregnated trap, consists of a large
piece of cloth of a colour attractive to
tsetse flies.
• The impregnated insecticide kills the flies
when they land on the screen.
• Impregnated screens are effective only as
long as the insecticide lasts.
87
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• Models of traps and
screens
i) The biconical trap
-was one of the
earliest models to be
designed

88
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
-it is not used in large-scale control
operations because of its relatively high
price and complicated structure.
-However, it is still used to monitor the
effectiveness of tsetse fly control activities.
-The lower cone is made of blue cotton or
synthetic cloth.

89
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
-The inner part is divided into four
compartments by four segments of black
cloth.
-Four openings allow the flies to enter the
blue cone.
-The upper cone is made of mosquito
netting, and flies are caught in the top part,
by a simple trapping device.
90
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
ii) The Vavoua trap
-was designed in
Vavoua, Côte d’Ivoire.
-It consists of a cone of
mosquito netting
attached to a circular
piece of galvanized
metal wire and placed
above three screens
joined together at
angles of 120°.
91
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
-Each screen is two thirds blue and one-
third black, the black parts being joined
together in the middle.
• The flies land on the black parts, fly
upwards towards the light and are caught
in the upper cone.

92
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• This trap can either be used with a
catching device or
• be impregnated with an insecticide.

93
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
iii) The pyramidal trap
• The pyramidal trap
consists of a pyramid
of transparent white
mosquito netting
surmounting two black
and two blue screens
arranged in the form
of a cross.

94
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• In large-scale programmes it offers the
advantage that it is very compact for
storage.

95
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
iv) Impregnated
screens
• Unlike traps, screens
are effective in killing
tsetse flies only when
impregnated with
an insecticide.

96
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• The most commonly used screen consists
of a strip blue material made of cotton and
polyester or plastic with a strip of black
nylon sheeting on either side, giving a total
size of about 1m2.
• The screen is attached to two wooden
laths and suspended from a branch by
means of a rope or from a metal support
driven into the earth.
97
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies
• The flies are attracted to the blue material
and then try to settle on the black area.
• It is therefore sufficient to impregnate the
black strips only.
• Consequently, the black strips have to be
made of a material that offers a good
substrate for an insecticide; nylon seems
to serve this purpose best.
98
 Advantages and disadvantages
of traps and screens
Screens
• Screens are less complicated than traps, and
cost roughly 70% of the price.
• Thus, with a given budget, a larger area could
be covered with screens or a higher density of
devices could be used over the same area.
• However, the necessity to re-impregnate the
screens more often is a major disadvantage.

99
 Advantages and disadvantages
of traps and screens
Traps
• Traps attract more flies than screens
because they are visible from all sides.
• They require less handling, since they
remain effective even after the insecticide
has lost its activity.

100
 Advantages and disadvantages
of traps and screens
Traps with or without insecticide
impregnation
• Impregnated traps are 10–20% more
effective in killing tsetse flies than
unimpregnated traps.
• With unimpregnated traps it would take
more time to reach the same level of
control.
101
 Advantages and disadvantages
of traps and screens
• Unimpregnated traps have to be used with
a permanent catching device, such as a
catching bag.
• For quick action these traps can also be
impregnated.
• When the insecticide has lost its activity,
after 3–6 months, the traps continue to be
effective in catching flies.
102
 Placement
of traps and screens
Traps or screens should be placed:
— as close as possible to the banks of the
river for the best possible visibility;
— in the most open and sunny places;
— in greater number where people
frequently visit the river.

103
 Placement
of traps and screens
The best time to install traps or screens is at
the end of the rainy season after the flood
waters have gone down because:
— insecticides are likely to be washed out
of the material during the rainy season;

104
 Placement
of traps and screens
— the tsetse fly population concentrates in
the gallery forest during the dry season;
— the population of flies is older (there
being a higher pupal mortality during
the rainy season), and older flies are more
responsive to traps.

105
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies…
2) Using Insecticide spraying
Ground spraying: Hand-compression
knapsack sprayers, portable motorized
sprayers and motorized spray pumps
transported on a tractor may be used.
Aerial spraying: Helicopters are used
to apply residual insecticides or non-
residual aerosols at selected places.
106
 Control measures
of Tsetse Flies…
3) Sterile Male Insect Technique (SIT):
Is release of sterile male tsetse flies
(sterilization done by UV radiation) and
mix them with the wild fly population.

107
 Control of House flies
• Flies can be killed directly by
insecticides or
physical means such as
-traps,
-sticky tapes,
-fly swats and
-electrocuting grids.
However, the best approach is to:
108
 Control of House flies…
Improvement of environmental sanitation and
hygiene
Four strategies can be employed:
— reduction or elimination of fly breeding sites;
 Reduction or elimination of fly breeding sites
Animal sheds, stables, pens and feed lots
— reduction of sources that attract flies from
other areas;

109
 Control of House flies…
- Poultry houses
- Dung heaps
- Human excreta
- Garbage and other organic refuse
-Soil impregnated with organic matter

110
 Control of House flies…
— prevention of contact between flies and
disease-causing germs; through the
following most important strategies:
- the installation and use of proper latrines
and toilets where flies cannot make
contact with faeces;

111
 Control of House flies…
- the prevention of contact between flies
and sick people, their excreta, soiled baby
nappies, open sores, and infected eyes;
- the prevention of access of flies to
slaughter offal and dead animals.
- protection of food, eating utensils and
people from contact with flies.

112
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
i) Detection:
Live bugs can be detected by spraying
an aerosol of pyrethrum into cracks and
crevices, thus irritating them and driving
them out of their hiding places.

113
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
ii) Repellents:
• can be used by travelers who have to
sleep in houses infested with the insects.
• However, repellents applied to the skin are
unlikely to last the whole night.
• It is likely that burning mosquito coils offer
some protection.

114
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
iii) Simple household measures:
• Light infestations can be treated by
thoroughly cleaning infested articles,
pouring boiling water over them and
exposing them to sunlight.

115
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
• Aerosol spray cans can be used to spray
household insecticides on to mattresses,
in crevices in walls, and in other possible
hiding places.

116
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
• The procedure should be repeated if bugs
are still found after a few weeks.
iv) Impregnated mosquito nets:
Mosquito nets impregnated with a long-
lasting pyrethroid insecticide are effective
in repelling and killing bedbugs.

117
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
v) Smoke generators:
• Smoke generators, which are
commercially available and usually contain
pyrethroid insecticides, can be used to
fumigate the interior of houses.
• They burn for 3–15 minutes and can be
used only once.

118
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
• They are mainly used where quick action
is needed.
• They mostly contain an irritant insecticide
that drives the bugs out of hiding.
vi) Residual insecticides:
• Houses with heavy infestations need to be
treated with long-lasting residual
insecticide.
119
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
• One treatment is normally sufficient to
eliminate bedbugs but, if an infestation
persists, re-treatments should be carried
out at intervals of not less than two weeks.

120
 Control measures
of Bedbugs
• In many countries, resistance of bedbugs
to DDT, lindane and dieldrin is common.
• The insecticide selected should thus be
one known to be effective against the
target population.

121
 Control measures
of Bedbugs..

• Spray residual insecticide on to mattresses,

cracks in walls, floors and other hiding places
with a compression sprayer.
122
 Control measures
of Lice
A) Head lice control
• Hygienic measures:
Regular washing with soap and warm
water and regular combing may reduce
the numbers of nymphs and adults.

123
 Control measures
of Lice
- A special louse comb with very closely set
fine teeth is effective in removing both
adults and eggs.
• Shaving the head is effective and this
measure is sometimes adopted with young
boys; however, it is often objected to and
should not be insisted on.

124
 Control measures
of Lice
Insecticides: Insecticide applications to the
hair give the most effective control.
• They can be in the form of shampoos,
lotions, emulsions or powders.
• Powder or dust formulations are usually
less effective and less acceptable for use
than lotions or emulsions.

125
 Control of lice…
Impregnated mosquito nets:
• Head louse infestations disappear from
people sleeping under mosquito nets
impregnated with a long-lasting pyrethroid
insecticide.

126
 Crab or pubic lice control
• the application of insecticidal formulations,
as described for head louse control.
• In heavy infestations all hairy areas of the
body below the neck should be treated.

127
 Body lice control
• Individual treatment
-Regular washing and changing of
clothes usually prevents body louse
infestations.
-Clothing must be washed in water hotter
than 60 °C and should then be ironed if
possible.

128
 Body lice control
Group or mass treatment for disease
control
• The preferred method for mass treatment
is the blowing of insecticidal powder
between the body and underclothes.
• A suitable powder consists of talcum
powder mixed with permethrin (0.5%),
DDT (10%), lindane (1%) or another
insecticide.
129
 Body lice control
• Because the dusts come into close contact
with the body, it is important that the
insecticides have a low toxicity to people
and do not cause irritation.
• An advantage of dusting powder is that it
is easily transported and stored.

130
 Body lice control
• Application can be made by any type of
dusting apparatus, such as compressed-
air dusters, plunger-type dusters and puff
dusters or by hand.
• Special attention should be given to the
seams of underwear and other garments.
• To treat large groups of people about 50 g
of powder per person is needed.
131
 Body lice control
• The powder is blown into the clothing
through the neck openings, up the
sleeves and from all sides of the loosened
waist.

132
 Body lice control
-Socks, headwear and bedding should
also be treated.
-One treatment should be sufficient but re-
treatment may be needed at intervals of
8–10 days if infestations persist.

133
Treating an individual with
insecticidal dust

134
 Control measures of Ticks
A) Self-protection
i) Avoidance
 Fields and forests infested with ticks
should be avoided if possible.
avoiding old camp sites and
by not sleeping on floors of mud houses.

135
 Control measures of ticks
ii) Repellents
These substances can be applied to the
skin or clothing.

136
 Control measures
iii) Clothing
• Clothing can provide some protection if,
for example, trousers are tucked into boots
or socks and if shirts are tucked into
trousers.
• Clothing should be removed and
examined for the presence of ticks after a
tick-infested area has been visited.
137
 Control measures
Impregnated clothing
these not only prevent biting but also kill
ticks.
Eg. Pyrethroid treatment of clothing is
additionally effective against mosquitos for
a month or longer.

138
 Control measures
Mechanical Removal of attached ticks
A tick should be removed by pulling
slowly but steadily, preferably with forceps
to avoid contact between the fingers and
the tick’s infective body fluids.

139
 Control measures
The tick should be grasped as close as
possible to where the head enters the
skin, so as not to crush it, and care should
be taken not to break off the embedded
mouthparts, as they may cause irritation
and secondary infection.

140
 Control measures
The following methods may induce soft ticks
to withdraw their mouthparts:
touching with a hot object such as a
heated needle tip; dabbing with
chloroform, ether or some other
anaesthetic.

141
 Control measures
With hard ticks these methods only work
immediately after biting because they are
attached with a saliva cement that
prevents them from quickly withdrawing
their mouthparts.
In areas where ticks are only a nuisance
they can be coated with oil, paraffin,
vaseline or nail varnish to prevent them
from obtaining oxygen.

142
 Control measures
• Hard ticks then dissolve the cement so
that they can withdraw their mouthparts,
but this may take several hours.

143
 Control measures
• However, these methods are not
recommended in areas where ticks are
vectors of disease, as they work too slowly
and may cause ticks to regurgitate into
wounds, injecting disease organisms.
• In such circumstances it is recommended
to pull the ticks out immediately, even if
the head is left in the wound.

144
 Control measures
• Application of insecticides to animals
• Insecticides applied directly to the bodies
of these animals in the form of dusts,
sprays, dips or washes can be very
effective.
• Pour-on formulations are applied over the
animals’ backs.

145
 Control measures
• The insecticide (a pyrethroid) is distributed
over the whole body by tail and other
movements.
• It is particularly important to treat the back,
neck, belly and the back of the head.

146
 Control measures
• Spraying insecticides in houses and
resting places for animals
• Ticks can be killed by insecticides sprayed
on floors in houses, porches, verandas,
dog kennels and other places where
domestic animals sleep.

147
 Control measures
• Special care must be taken to treat the
hiding and resting places of ticks in cracks
and crevices in walls, floors and furniture.
• Residual house-spraying against malaria
mosquitos has often resulted in a
reduction in the numbers of ticks.

148
 Control measures
Impregnated mosquito nets
• Soft ticks that habitually feed indoors on
sleeping persons can be controlled with
impregnated bednets.

149
 Control measures
B) Community protection
• Large-scale control activities are
sometimes carried out in recreational
areas or in areas where ticks transmit tick-
borne diseases.
• It is often economical and effective to
integrate several methods into a
comprehensive control strategy.
150
 Control measures
Possible components of an integrated
strategy are as follows:
• Surveillance: sampling to identify tick
habitats where control is needed.
• Vegetation management: physical or
chemical measures to reduce and isolate
tick habitats.

151
 Control measures

• Host management: removal or exclusion of

host animals.
• Targeted chemical control: pesticide
applications against ticks, targeted at the
tick host or habitat.

152
 Control measures

• Cultural practices: lifestyle changes to limit

exposure to ticks.
• Personal protection: protective clothing;
repellents; checking for and removing
of ticks.

153
 Control measures
Area spraying with insecticides: Spraying
ticks directly in their natural habitats in
forests and fields using aircraft or
helicopters.
• Control lasts for a month or longer,
depending on conditions and the size of
the treated area.

154
 Control measures
Vegetation management
• In, for example, parks and camp sites,
ticks can be controlled by removal of the
vegetation serving as their habitat. This
can be done by cutting, mowing or
applying herbicides.

155
 Control measures
Host management
• Tick populations can be reduced by
removing the animals on which they
usually feed.
• Fences can be used to exclude larger
animals such as deer

156
 Control measures
Insecticide-treated nesting material
• Mice actively harvest soft material for their
nests; when they incorporate cotton
nesting material treated with 7–8%
permethrin, their tick infestations are
virtually eliminated.

157
 Control measures
• The treated nesting material is protected in
dispensing tubes (4cm in diameter by
20cm in length) and is placed about every
10 m in mouse habitats.

158
 Control measures
• The impregnated material is made using a
patented method of soaking cotton in a
permethrin emulsion and then drying it.

159
 Control of MITES
Biting mites control
a) Prevention of bites: by avoiding infested
terrain and applying repellents to skin and
clothing.
• Under conditions of frequent exposure the
best protection is given by impregnated
clothing and by tucking trousers inside
socks.

160
 Control of MITES
• Where vegetation is low it is sufficient to
treat socks and the bottoms of trouser
legs.
b) Removal of vegetation: The control of
mites by killing them in their habitats is
very difficult because of the patchy
distribution of their populations.

161
 Control of MITES
• If it is possible to identify the patches of
vegetation that harbour large numbers of
larval mites (mite islands), it may be
advantageous to remove them by burning
or cutting and then to scrape or plough the
top-soil.

162
 Control of MITES
• Mowing grass or weeds in these areas
also helps. Such measures are
recommended in the vicinity of camp sites
and buildings.
c) Residual spraying of vegetation

163
 Control of MITES
• Where the removal of vegetation is not
possible, mite islands can be sprayed with
residual insecticide.

164
 Control of MITES
Scabies Mites Control
Treatment of cases:-
• Ivermectine in a single oral dose of 100–
200µg per kg of body weight.
• Conventional treatment methods aim to kill
the mites with insecticide
• Treatment of all family members is
necessary to prevent re-infestation.
165
 Control of MITES
• Application method of insecticides: The
formulation must be applied to all parts of
the body below the neck, not only to the
places where itching is felt.
• It should not be washed off until the next
day.
• Treated persons can dress after the
application has been allowed to dry for
about 15 minutes.
166
 Control of MITES
House Dust Mites
• The density of house dust mite allergens
can be assessed by a test which
measures the concentration of mite
excreta (guanine) in dust.
• Mites and associated fungi can be
controlled by decreasing the humidity in
rooms, improving ventilation and removing
dust.
167
 Control of MITES
• Bedrooms and living rooms should be
aired regularly, or other measures should
be taken to reduce dampness.

168
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
1) Environmental management
a) Cleanliness and hygiene
Food should be stored in tightly
covered containers in screened cabinets
or refrigerators.
All areas have to be kept clean so
that no fragments of food or organic matter
remain.
169
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
 Rubbish bins should be securely
covered and emptied frequently,
preferably daily.
Basements and areas underneath
buildings should be kept dry and free of
accessible food and water.

170
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
b) Reduction of accessibility
• Groceries, laundry, dirty clothing, egg
crates and furniture should be checked
before being taken into a building.
• In some instances, accessibility to
buildings can be reduced by closing gaps
in floors and door frames.

171
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
2) Chemical control
• This gives only temporary relief and,
wherever possible, it should be
accompanied by environmental sanitation
and house improvement.

172
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
• Insecticides are applied to the resting and
hiding places as residual sprays and
insecticidal dusts.
• Such applications are effective for periods
ranging from several days to months,
depending on the insecticide and the
substrate on which it is deposited.
• Insecticides can also be combined with
attractants as toxic baits.
173
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
Application
• Areas to be treated: Areas to be treated
include kitchens, galleys, behind and
along skirting-boards, in and around sinks,
in or under cupboards, under chairs and
tables, in utility cabinets, near refrigerators
and ice boxes, under loose floor
coverings, food preparation areas, ducts,
pipes, sewers and manholes.

174
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
Food storage areas in restaurants,
warehouses and other commercial
establishments should be treated.

175
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
3) Insect growth regulators
• Are compounds that are highly toxic to
insect larvae or pupae, interfering with
their development into adults.

176
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
• They have a very low toxicity to non-target
organisms.
• Their use is limited by their high cost and
limited availability, but they may be of
considerable value where cockroaches
have developed resistance to other
commonly used insecticides.

177
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
4) Baits and traps
• Work on the principle of attracting
cockroaches to a specific point and then
trapping or killing them there.

178
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
• Some substances used as attractants are
various food items, pheromones and other
attractive chemicals. The trapping element
may be a mechanical trap or a sticky
material.

179
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
Application
• Baits and traps are easy to use and should
be placed at sites frequented by
cockroaches.
• They are most effective in situations where
there is little or no food to compete with
the bait, as is the case in offices.

180
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
• The maintenance of environmental
hygiene is especially important when baits
are used alone.
• In heavily infested areas, baits need to be
replaced frequently.

181
 Control measures
of Cockroaches
5) Repellents
• Apply to hiding places in shipping
containers, and in cases and boxes
containing drinks, food and other
materials.
• They can also be used in kitchen
cupboards, food and beverage vending
machines, and so on.
182
 Control measures
of Fleas
• The recommended control methods
depend on whether the intention is to deal
with fleas as a biting nuisance or as
vectors of disease.

183
 Control measures
of Fleas
A) Fleas as a nuisance
i) Individual self-protection
repellent
insecticide-impregnated clothing
ii) Simple hygienic measures
keeping houses well swept and floors
washed. Removal with a vacuum cleaner
is also effective.
184
 Control measures
of Fleas
The treatment of floors with detergents,
insecticides or a solution of naphthalene in
benzene is recommended; care should be
taken to avoid inhaling benzene fumes.

185
 Control measures
of Fleas
Application of insecticides
spraying or dusting insecticides into
cracks and crevices, corners of rooms and
areas where fleas and their larvae are
likely to occur.

186
 Control measures
of Fleas
• Insecticides can also be applied to clothing
and the fur of animals.
• Fumigant canisters that produce aerosols
of quick-acting insecticides (e.g. the
pyrethroids, propoxur and bendiocarb) kill
fleas directly and are convenient to use.

187
 Control measures
of Fleas
B) Fleas that transmit diseases
• Control measures during epidemics of
plague or typhus must be effected in two
stages:
(i) insecticidal dusting of rat habitats to kill
rat fleas;
(ii) rat control.

188
 Control measures
of Fleas
A control campaign with the sole aim of
killing rodents could result in increased
disease transmission to humans: the
deaths of many rodents could cause large
numbers of fleas to leave the dead hosts
and seek alternative sources of blood.

189
 Control measures
of Fleas
Integrated rat and flea control
• To control urban outbreaks of plague or
typhus, insecticides to kill rat fleas are
applied at the same time as or a few days
earlier than rat poisons.

190
 Control measures
of Fleas
• Suitable rat poisons are warfarin,
coumafuryl, difenacoum, brodifacoum,
coumatetralyl, bromadialone,
chlorophacinone and zinc phosphide.

191
 Control measures
of Fleas
• In places where food for human
consumption is stored and in crowded
areas, such as markets, it is safer to use
bait boxes in which the rodents
contaminate themselves with the antiflea
dust before they die from eating the toxic
bait.

192
 Control measures
of Fleas
Bait boxes can be placed along rodent runs
at intervals of 60 metres.
A suitable bait consists of 100 g of rolled
oats mixed with rat poison.

193
Bait boxes made of bamboo.

194
A bait box made of floorboard (30 × 20cm)
covered by a metal roof.

195
 Freshwater
Snails
Biology:
• Some 350 snail species are estimated to
be of possible medical or veterinary
importance.
• Most intermediate hosts of human
Schistosoma parasites belong to three
genera, Biomphalaria, Bulinus and
Oncomelania.
196
 Freshwater
Snails
• These species involved can be identified
by the shape of the outer shell.
• The snails can be divided into two main
groups:
aquatic snails (Biomphalaria, Bulinus),
and
amphibious snails (Oncomelania).

197
 Freshwater
Snails
• In Africa and the Americas, snails of the
genus Biomphalaria serve as intermediate
hosts of S. mansoni.

198
 Freshwater
Snails
• Snails of the genus Bulinus serve as the
intermediate hosts of S. haematobium in
Africa and the Eastern Mediterranean, as
well as of S. intercalatum in Africa.
• In south-east Asia, Oncomelania serves
as the intermediate host of S. japonicum,
and Tricula as the intermediate host of S.
mekongi.

199
 Freshwater
Snails
• Among the snail intermediate hosts of
trematodes, the species belonging to the
genus Lymnaea are of importance in the
transmission of liver flukes.
• Lymnaea species may be either aquatic or
amphibious.

200
 Freshwater
Snails
Life cycle:
• All species of Biomphalaria and Bulinus
are hermaphrodite, possessing both male
and female organs and being capable of
self- or cross-fertilization.
• The eggs are laid at intervals in batches of
5–40, each batch being enclosed in a
mass of jelly-like material.
201
 Freshwater
Snails
• The young snails hatch after 6–8 days and
reach maturity in 4–7 weeks, depending
on the species and environmental
conditions.
• Temperature and food availability are
among the most important limiting factors.
• A snail lays up to 1000 eggs during its life,
which may last more than a year.
202
 Freshwater
Snails
• The amphibious Oncomelania snails,
which may live for several years, have
separate sexes.
• The female lays its eggs singly near the
water margin.

203
 Freshwater
Snails
Ecology
• Snail habitats include almost all types of
freshwater bodies ranging from small
temporary ponds and streams to large
lakes and rivers.

204
 Freshwater
Snails
• Within each habitat, snail distribution may
be patchy and detection requires
examination of different sites.

205
 Freshwater
Snails
• Moreover, snail densities vary significantly
with the season.
• In general, the aquatic snail hosts of
schistosomes occur in shallow water near
the shores of lakes, ponds, marshes,
streams and irrigation channels.

206
 Freshwater
Snails
• They live on water plants and mud that is
rich in decaying organic matter.
• They can also be found on rocks, stones
or concrete covered with algae or on
various types of debris.

207
 Freshwater
Snails
• They are most common in waters where
water plants are abundant and in water
moderately polluted with organic matter,
such as faeces and urine, as is often the
case near human habitations.
• Plants serve as substrates for feeding and
oviposition as well as providing protection
from high water velocities and predators
such as fish and birds.

208
209
Bulinus truncatus

210
Oncomelania quadrasi

211
Lymnaea natalensis

212
• For reproduction, temperatures between
22 °C and 26 °C are usually optimal.
• The snails can easily survive between
10°C and 35 °C.
• They are not found in salty or acidic water.

213
• Oncomelania snails can survive periods of
drought because they possess an
operculum capable of closing the shell
opening.
• In the temperate zone they can survive for
2–4 months, in the tropics much less.

214
• Their food is similar to that of aquatic
snails but they also feed on plant surfaces
above water.

215
 Public health importance
Schistosomiasis
- is one of the most widespread of all human
parasitic diseases, ranking second only to
malaria in terms of its socioeconomic and public
health importance in tropical and subtropical
areas.
• As a mainly rural, often occupational disease,
schistosomiasis principally affects people who
are unable to avoid contact with water.

216
 Public health importance
Major forms and distribution of
schistosomes:
- intestinal schistosomiasis caused by
Schistosoma mansoni in 52 countries in
Africa, the eastern Mediterranean, the
Caribbean and South America.

217
 Public health importance
- Oriental or Asiatic intestinal
schistosomiasis, caused by S. japonicum
or S. mekongi, endemic in seven Asian
countries.
- Another form of intestinal schistosomiasis
caused by S. intercalatum in10 central
African countries.

218
 Public health importance
-Urinary (or vesical) schistosomiasis,
caused by S. haematobium, endemic in 54
countries in Africa and the eastern
Mediterranean.

219
 Public health importance
Life cycle and transmission
• On reaching water, the eggs excreted by
an infected person hatch to release a tiny
parasite (a miracidium) that swims actively
through the water by means of fine hairs
(cilia) covering its body.

220
 Public health importance
The miracidium survives for about 8–12
hours, during which time it must find and
penetrate the soft body of a suitable
freshwater snail in order to develop
further.

221
 Public health importance
Once inside the snail, the miracidium
reproduces many times asexually until
thousands of new forms (cercariae) break
out of the snail into the water.
• Depending on the species of snail and
parasite, and on environmental conditions,
this phase of development may take 3
weeks in hot areas, and 4–7 weeks or
longer elsewhere.

222
 Public health importance
• The fork-tailed cercariae can live for up to
48 hours outside the snail.
• Within that time they must penetrate the
skin of a human being in order to continue
their life cycle.

223
Vector Control (Dr.Netsanet W.) 224
• As the cercaria penetrates the skin, it
loses its tail.
• Within 48 hours it penetrates the skin
completely to reach the blood vessels.

225
• This process sometimes causes itching,
but most people do not notice it.
• Within seven weeks the young parasite
matures into an adult male or female
worm.
• Eggs are produced only by mated
females.

226
• Male and female adult worms remain
joined together for life, a period of less
than five years on average but 20 years
has been recorded.
• The more slender female is held
permanently in a groove in the front of the
male’s body.
• Once eggs are produced, the cycle starts
again.
227
• In intestinal schistosomiasis the worms
attach themselves to the blood vessels
that line the intestines;
- In urinary schistosomiasis, they live in the
blood vessels of the bladder.

228
• Only about half of the eggs leave the body
in the faeces (intestinal schistosomiasis)
or urine (urinary schistosomiasis); the rest
remain embedded in the body where they
cause damage to organs.

229
 Clinical signs and symptoms
of schistosoma infection
• Reactions occur to schistosome eggs that
are not passed out in the urine or stools
but become lodged in body tissues.
• The symptoms are related to the number
and location of the eggs.
• In urinary schistosomiasis
-eggs cause damage to the urinary
tract and
230
 Clinical signs and symptoms
of schistosoma infection
-blood appears in the urine (haematuria).
-Urination becomes painful (strain) and
-there is progressive damage to the
bladder (cystitis), ureters and kidneys.
-Bladder cancer is common in advanced
cases.

231
 Clinical signs and symptoms
of schistosoma infection
In Intestinal schistosomiasis (caused by S.
mansoni, S. japonicum and S. mekongi)
-it develops more slowly.

232
 Clinical signs and symptoms
of schistosoma infection
-there is progressive enlargement of the
liver and spleen and
-damage to the intestine, caused by
fibrotic lesions around the schistosome
eggs lodged in these tissues and
-hypertension of the abdominal blood
vessels.

233
 Clinical signs and symptoms
of schistosoma infection
-repeated bleeding from these vessels
leads to blood in the stools and can be
fatal.
• S. intercalatum infects the lower intestinal
tract.

234
 Control measures
of snails
• In addition to case detection and the
treatment of sick people at first-line health
facilities, measures should be taken to
reduce or prevent transmission of
schistosomiasis.

235
 Control measures
of schistosomiasis
• a) Avoidance of contact with snail-
infested waters:
-Good village water supplies with pumps
and pipes or pit-wells encourage people to
stay away from streams and ponds that
are infested.

236
 Control measures
of snails
-avoid swimming, washing or bathing in
water suspected of infestation.
-for agricultural workers at constant risk of
infection, periodic examination and
treatment may be the most feasible
approach to disease control.

237
 Control measures
of snails
b) Improved sanitation:
-Defecation or urination in or near open
waters should be avoided
- Latrines or toilets should be constructed,
and children should be taught to use them.
c) Snail control

238
 Snail control
• Prior to undertaking snail control
measures, health authorities should
screen water for the presence of snail
intermediate hosts.
1) Environmental management
-include drainage, filling in, and the lining of
canals with concrete.
-These methods are generally expensive
but long-lasting.
239
 Snail control
1.1) Reduction of snail habitats
 removal of vegetation in irrigation ditches
and canals.
• A disadvantage of this method is the need
for frequent repetition.

240
 Snail control
1.2) Alteration of water levels and flow rates
 This can disturb snail habitats and their food
sources.
 This method may be of interest in areas with
irrigated crops.
1.3) Elimination of breeding sites
 Borrow-pits, small pools and ponds serving no
special purpose may be drained or filled.

241
 Snail control
2)Removal and destruction:
• Snails can be removed from canals and
watercourses with dredges and crushed or
• left to die of desiccation.
3) Biological control
• The possibility of controlling snails
biologically has attracted some attention
but cannot currently be recommended.
242
 Snail control
4) Chemical control
• Currently only one chemical molluscicide,
niclosamide, is acceptable for operational
use in snail control programmes.
• Because of its high cost, niclosamide is
used only sparingly in a few local control
programmes.
• At low concentrations it is highly toxic to
snails and their egg masses.
243
 Snail control
• For practical use a concentration of 0.6–1
mg/l is recommended with an exposure
time of eight hours.
• The compound is safe to handle and after
dilution is non-toxic to water plants and
crops; however, it is very toxic to fish.
• Fish killed by the molluscicide can be
safely eaten.
244
 Snail control
• The use of molluscicides in general has a
number of disadvantages:
because of the need for repeated
applications a long-term commitment is
required;

245
 Snail control
 the chemicals are costly, and good
supervision of application by trained
personnel is essential;

246
 Snail control
 they have adverse effects on non-target
organisms, particularly fish;
snails are able to bury themselves or
temporarily leave the water to escape the
chemicals, necessitating repeated
application.

247
 Snail control
Application of niclosamide:
• Niclosamide is available as a 70% wettable
powder or a 25% emulsifiable concentrate.
• The latter formulation spreads very well in
standing water when mixed with diesel oil at a
ratio of 8.5 parts of 25% emulsifiable
concentrate to 1.5 parts of diesel oil.
• One gram of the active ingredient is contained in
1.43 g of the powder.

248
 Snail control
a) In stagnant water:
• applications are best carried out using a
sprayer.
• mixtures of the wettable powder
formulation for spraying should be
constantly agitated.

249
 Snail control
The amount to be sprayed on the water
surface is calculated as follows.
• The volume of water in the pond is
obtained by multiplying the average depth
by the length and width.

250
 Snail control
• The depth can be estimated using a
measuring stick weighted at the bottom
and attached to the middle of a long string
at the top.
• The stick stands upright from the bottom of
the pond when the ends of the string are
pulled from opposite sides.

251
 Snail control
• In small ponds the molluscicide should be
sprayed equally over the whole surface.
• In larger ponds only the margins need to
be treated.
• Simple field equipment is available for
measuring the concentration of the
chemical in water to check whether
applications have been made correctly.
252
 Snail control
b) In flowing water:
• Molluscicides introduced into flowing water
are carried away immediately from the
point of application.
• Because the chemical needs to be in
contact with the snails long enough to kill
them (preferably eight hours or more), it
needs to be applied over a sufficiently long
period.
253
 Snail control
• It is recommended that flowing water be
treated for eight hours with a dosage of
0.6 mg/l of the 25% emulsifiable
concentrate formulation or 1 mg/l of the
wettable powder formulation.

254
 Snail control
The release of molluscicide into flowing
water is commonly carried out by a drip-
feed technique using a drum dispenser
(See Fig.), which delivers a constant flow
for a number of hours.

255
Snail control

256
• It should be set up at narrow or turbulent
points in a stream or canal to ensure
complete mixing of the chemical with the
water.
• In canals the water velocity can be
estimated by recording the time for a
floating object to travel a certain distance.

257
 Application of molluscicide
using a constant-head dispenser
• Niclosamide 70% wettable powder at 1
mg/l (active ingredient) is applied for
eight hours:
1. Water volume to be treated per second
(m3/s): Q= V× D× W where:
V = water velocity in m/s
D = water depth in metres
W= width of canal in metres
258
 Application of molluscicide
using a constant-head dispenser
2. Total amount of molluscicide (in grams)
needed: Q× 1.43 × 60 × 60 × 8
• Note: the average water velocity in the
entire cross-section of the canal is about
85% of the maximum flow velocity
measured at the surface by observing a
floating object.

259
 Application of molluscicide
using a constant-head dispenser
• Therefore, the amount of niclosamide in
equation 2 needs to be multiplied by 0.85.

260
 Application of molluscicide
using a constant-head dispenser
• The drum dispenser should be filled with
the amount of molluscicide mixture in
water required for constant application
over eight hours.
• If the suspension is prepared with a
wettable powder formulation, frequent
stirring is needed to prevent sedimentation
of the chemical.

261
 Chemical control of vectors
Insecticide applications:-
-Residual sprays on surfaces
-Treatment of fabrics
-Application on breeding surfaces
-Repellents (Coils, vaporizing
mats, dispensers)
-Aerosols

262
 Nomenclature of insecticides
• They are named
1.Common name/generic name
-is selected by Entomological Society of
America and approved by the American
National Standards Institute and the
International Organizations for
Standardization (ISO)

263
Nomenclature of insecticides
2. Chemical name
-Provides the description of the
insecticide’s structure and is formed
following the “Definitive Rules for the
Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry”
developed by the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

264
 Nomenclature of insecticides
3. Trade (proprietary and brand name)
-is given by the manufacturer or
formulator
Eg:-Common name- Carbaryl
Chemical name- 1-naphthyl N
methylcarbamate
Trade name- Sevin®

265
 Classification of insecticides
Based on-Application
-Nature and Source
-Chemical composition

266
 Classification of insecticides
a) Application
i) Stomach poison. Eg.Boric acid
ii) Systemic-through the gut by feeding on
treated host. Eg. Ivermectin
iii) Contact poisons-absorbed through body
integument. Eg. DDT
iv) Fumigant poisons:
-become gases at To >5oc
-enter into trachea
267
 Classification of insecticides
b) Nature and source
i) Inorganic-lack carbon
ii) Organic- posses carbon
Natural- plants (botanicals)
- mineral oils( by refining
petroleum)
Synthetic- chemically joining
elements or simple compounds
268
 Classification of insecticides
c) Chemical composition- chemical or active
ingredient responsible for the toxic effect.
1.Chlorinated Hydrocarbons (CHC)
Eg. DDT, dieldrin
2.Organophosphates (OPS)
Eg. Malathion, abate (temephos),
fenitrothion

269
 Classification of insecticides
3.Carbamates eg. Propoxur, carbaryl
4.Pyrethroids eg. permethrin,
deltamethrin, cypermethrin
5.Botanicals eg. Pyrethrum-extracted
from flower petal of chrysanthemum spp.
Limonene (from citrus peel)
6.Fumigants (gaseous poisons) eg. HCN

270
Chemicals used with insecticide
• Synergists:- increase toxicity
• Solvents:- dissolve the insecticide
• Diluents:- carriers
• Surfactants:- improve emulsifying, wetting
and spreading properties of the mixture
• Stickers( adhesives):- improve adhesion
• Deodorants:- mask unpleasant odor

271
 Insecticide Formulations
• Technical grade material- pure form of the
insecticide compound that comprised the
ACTIVE INGREDIENT (AI)

272
 Insecticide Formulations
• Technical grade material is mixed with
auxiliaries(= inert ingredients which have
no direct effect on insects).

• The mixture of active and inert ingredients

for killing insects is called INSECTICIDE
FORMULATION.

273
 Insecticide Formulations
• Some formulations are ready for use but
others must be diluted with water or oil
* Liquid formulations
* Dry formulations

274
 Insecticide Formulations
Liquid formulations
1.Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC or E)
2.Solutions(S):- toxicant in organic
solvents
3.Flowables(F and L)
4.Aerosols (A)
5.Liquid gases (LG)

275
 Insecticide Formulations
Dry formulations:
1.Dusts (D):- toxicant is mixed with
dust carrier
2.Granules (G)
3.Wettable Powders (WP or W)

276
Insecticide Formulations
4.Soluble powders (SP)
5.Dry flowables (DF)
6.Water soluble packets (WSP)
7.Poisonous baits (B)
8.Slow release formulations (SR)

277
 Insecticide Formulations
Liquid formulation
Eg. ECs -consist an organic solvent and an
emulsifiable agent in which the insecticide
is dissolved
- they form milky suspension with water
-finely suspended oil droplets
-remain in suspension with minimum
agitation.
278
 Insecticide Formulations
Dry formulations
Eg. WPs-formulated to be mixed with water
and sprayed on surfaces
-a surfactant added to the dust
allows wetting during the mixing process
-frequent agitation to keep the
insecticide in suspension

279
 Insecticide Modes of Action
• All insecticides block metabolic processes
1.Nerve poisons
2.Muscle poisons
3.Physical toxicants

280
 Insecticide Modes of Action
1.Nerve poisons
i) Narcotics-fumigants
-mode of action is mostly
physical (suffocation)
-lodge in fatty tissues
-action is reversible

281
 Insecticide Modes of Action
ii) Axonics
-interrupt normal axonic transmission of
the NS
-CHCs & pyrethroids disrupt normal
transmission
-induce changes in axonic membrane
permeability causing repetitive discharges.
Such discharges result in convulsions,
paralysis and death.
282
 Insecticide Modes of Action
iii) Synaptic-interrupt normal synaptic
transmission
-inhibit acetylcholinesterase
-build up of acetylcholine

283
 Insecticide Modes of Action
-rapid nerve firing occurs
producing symptoms of restlessness,
hyper excitability, tremor and convulsion,
paralysis and death
-Organophosphates and
carbamates

284
 Insecticide Modes of Action
2)Muscle poisons
-have direct influence on muscle tissues
-disrupt the excitable membrane of
muscles
-ten fold increase in oxygen
consumption followed by flaccid paralysis
and death.

285
 Insecticide Modes of Action

3)Physical toxicants
-block metabolic process by physical
means
-oils suffocate larvae and pupae

286
 Insecticide resistance
Defn- is the ability of certain individuals to
tolerate doses of toxicants which would
prove lethal to the majority of individuals in
a normal population of the same species.
• It originates with gene mutations
• Mutations result in new genotypes

287
 Resistance Mechanisms
1. Biochemical type
2. Physiological type
3. Behavioral type

288
 Resistance Mechanisms
1) Biochemical –most common type
-change them to non-toxic
products using detoxifying enzymes like
esterase, monooxygenases,etc.
-Overproduction of these
enzymes leads to increased metabolism
or sequestration.
-genes are involved
289
 Resistance Mechanisms
2) Physiological type
-reduce toxicity through changes in
physiology.
a) Alteration at the site of insecticide
activity
-decreased target site sensitivity
-modify target site receptors

290
 Resistance Mechanisms
-Kdr (Knock down resistance) mutations
Eg. two mutations in An. gambiae
i) leucine-phenylalanine
ii) leucine-serine
b) Decreased penetration of the insecticide
through the body wall by modifying
composition of cuticle structure.

291
 Resistance Mechanisms
Eg. Target sites for pyrethroids &
DDT(axonic poisons) is the Na+
channels of the NSmake the nerve
sheathes less sensitive to these
toxicants

292
 Resistance Mechanisms
3)Behavioral Resistance
*-avoidance of treated surfaces
Eg. Endophilics become exophylic

293
 Types of Resistance

Cross-resistance= is resistance to an
insecticide as result of selection by
another insecticide of similar category.
Multiple resistance= is resistance to several
different insecticides of different
categories by separate exposure

294
 Approaches of Resistance
Management
A) Selection and sequence of pesticide use
i) Effectiveness, safety and cost
ii) Use a pesticide with narrow
spectrum of resistance eg. malathion-
specific

295
 Approaches of Resistance
Management
iii) Use of insecticides that produce
resistance within a single insecticide
class
eg. Mosquito larvicide ---
organophosphates
iv) use of non-persistent insecticides

296
 Approaches of Resistance
Mangement
B) Selection of application of insecticides
i) Focal application
ii) Partial application to selected resting
sites
iii) Partial application to mosquito nets,
curtains and traps
iv) Seasonal application

297
 Approaches of Resistance
Management
C) Rotation of insecticides
D) Mixtures of insecticides
E) Use of synergists

298
 Approaches of Resistance
Management
F) Replacement of residual insecticides by
non-residual insecticides
G) Use of methods that kill adult females
H) Use of non-chemical methods
J) Integrated vector control.

299