Chapter 2

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

AND PRESENTATION
 1-2

2.1 Method of data collection


Data:- is a measurement or observation value
recorded for a certain element or variable.

Two types of data: Primary and Secondary
1. Primary (raw) data: Data collected by the
investigator himself for specific the purpose of study.

Primary data collection methods: includes Telephone
interview, personal interview, mailed questionnaire
etc.
Example:- asking the CGPA of the students in class.
2. Secondary data: When an investigator uses data,
which have already been collected by others, such
data are called secondary data. . Example of
secondary data: books, reports, magazines, etc.
Secondary data collection methods: obtained from
registrar, hospital, office, reports, magazines, etc.
 1-3

2.2 Method of data presentation

1. Tabular presentation
2. Diagrammatic and Graphic presentation.
2.2.1 Tabulation presentation(FD)
Frequency: - is the number of times a certain value or
class of values occurs.
Frequency distribution (FD):- is the organization of raw
data in the table form using classes and frequency.
 There are three types of FD and there are specific
procedures for constructing each type.
The three types are:- I Categorical FD,
II. Ungrouped FD and III. Grouped FD
 1-4

I. Categorical FD: Used for data that can be placed in specific

categories; such as nominal, ordinal level of data.
Example 2.1: Twenty five patients were given a blood test to
determine their blood type. The data is as shown below: A B B
AB O O O B AB B B B O A O O O AB AB A O O B A.
Solution: since the data are categorical by taking the four blood
types as classes we can construct a FD as shown below.
Step 1: Make a table which contains class, tally, frequency and
percent.
Step 2: Tally data and place the result under the column Tally.
Step 3: Count the tallies and place the result under the column
Frequency.
Step 4: find the percentage of values in each class by the
formula (%= f/n * 100%; f= frequency, n total number of
observation.)
 1-5

Definitions of some terms

1. Frequency: is the number of values in
a specific class of the distribution.
2. Frequency distribution: is the
organization of a data in table form
using classes and frequencies.
•There are three basic types of frequency
distributions
Categorical frequency distribution
Ungrouped frequency distribution
Grouped frequency distribution
 1-6

1. Categorical frequency distributions:

It uses for data that can be place in specific categories such as
nominal or ordinal.
e.g. sex type, marital status, & etc.
Example: a social worker collected the following data
on marital status for 25 persons. (M=married,
S=single, W=widowed, D=divorced)
M S D W D
S S M M M
W D S M M
W D D S S
S W W D D
How can U construct this data as ungrouped
frequency distribution?
 1-7

solution

Class Frequency Percent

M 6 24
S 7 28
D 7 28
W 5 24
 1-8

Break time … Enjoy

Q#1. I am a number and multiplied with 3

and added with 10 and divided by 2, and
the result equals to quarter of the
number. Then, who am I?
 1-9

ANSWER

Let the number is k, then

(K*3 +10)/ 2 = k*1/4
6k +20 = k
5k = -20
K = -4
 1-10

2. Ungrouped frequency distributions

•It is often constructed for small set or data on discrete variable.

•Steps in constructing ungrouped frequency distribution:

First find the smallest and largest raw score in the collected data.
Arrange the data in order of magnitude and count the frequency.
To facilitate counting one may include a column of tallies.
 1-11

Example: The following data is the

number of cars in a sample of 30
different parking places.

4 2 4 3 2 8 3 4 4 2 2 8
5 3 4
4 5 4 3 5 2 7 3 3 7 7 3
8 4 5

How do U construct this data as

ungrouped frequency distribution?
 1-12

Solution

The frequency distribution of the

number of cars
Number Frequenc %
of cars y
2 5 17
3 7 23
4 8 27
5 4 13
7 3 10
8 3 10
Total 30 100
 1-13

3. Grouped Frequency Distribution (GFD)

• It is a frequency distribution when several numbers are
grouped in one class.
Definitions for some terms to construct a GFD
1. Class Limit (CL): serve to identify the
classes of a frequency There are lower and
the upper class limits.

There are Lower CL & Upper CL

Eg. (4,6), (7,9),(10,12), ... (22,24)

4, 7,10,…, & 22 are the LCLs.

6,9,12,…, & 24 are the UCLs.
 1-14

2. Units of measurement (U): the distance between two

consecutive classes of the LCL & UCL.
It is usually taken as 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, ....
3. Class Boundaries (CB):
It separates one class in a grouped frequency distribution
from another. The boundaries have one more decimal
places than the row data and therefore do not appear in the
data.
There is no gap between the upper boundary of one class
and lower boundary of the next class.
There are LCB & UCB.
LCB=LCL-U/2 & UCB=LCL+U/2.
Eg. (3.5,6.5), (6.5,9.5), (9.5,11.5), …, & (21.5,24.5).
3.5, 6.5, 9.5,…, & 21.5 are the LCBs.
 1-15

4. Class width (W): the difference between the

upper and lower class boundaries of any class. It is also
the difference between the lower limits of any two
consecutive classes or the difference between any two
consecutive class marks. It has a unique value for all
classes.
W= UCB1 -LCB2 = LCL2 –LCL1= M2 –M1 or…
Eg. W=3 for the above data.

5. Class Mark (M): it divides the class into two equal

parts.

M= (LCL+UCL)/2 = (LCB +UCB)/2.

Eg. 5,8,11,…, & 23 are the M of the data.
 1-16

6. Relative frequency (rf): it is the frequency divided

by the total frequency. rf= fi/n.
7. More than Cumulative frequency (mcf): it is the
total frequency of all values ≥ the lower class boundary
of a given class.
 The sum of all freq values for ≥ LCB of that class.

8. Less than cumulative frequency (lcf): it is the

total frequency of all values ≤ the upper class boundary
of a given class.
 The sum of all freq values for ≤ UCB of that class.
 1-17

Steps for constructing a GFD:-


Step 1: find range (R)= Max value – Min
value

Step 2: Find the number of classes (K) using
Sturges’s formula, K = 1 + 3.322 log (n).
Round up the value of K. Its range is 5 ≤ K ≤
15.

Step 3: find the class width (W): W= Range/K

Round up the W value.
Step 4: take z min value as z 1st class LCL.
Step 5: find all z next LCLs by adding W to their
previous LCLs. Eg. LCL2 = LCL1 + W, ….
Step 6: find all UCLs:
UCL1 = LCL2 + U. but z UCL3 = UCL2 + W, …
Step 7: count and assign frequencies to the
classes
 1-18

Example : The following data are on the

number of minutes to travel from home to
work for a group of automobile 25 workers.
28 25 48 37 41 19 32 26 16 23 23
29 36
31 26 21 32 25 31 43 35 42 38 33 28
Construct a GFD for this data.

Solution:
 Range = 49 – 16 = 32
 K = 1 + 3.322 log(25) = 5.64 = 6
 W = R/K = 32/6 = 5.33 = 6
 1-19

The final frequency distribution is:

Time (in Number of

Minutes) workers
16-21 3
22-27 6
28-33 8
34-39 4
40-45 3
46-51 1
Total 25
 1-20

The relative frequency distribution is:

Time (in Relative

Minutes) frequency
16-21 0.12
22-27 0.24
28-33 0.32
34-39 0.16
40-45 0.12
46-51 0.04
Total 1
 1-21

Less than cumulative frequency

distribution :
Time (in Less than
Minutes) cumulative
frequency
Less than 21.5 3
Less than 27.5 9
Less than 33.5 17
Less than 39.5 21
Less than 45.5 24
Less than 51.5 25
 1-22

More than cumulative frequency

distribution:
Time (in More than
Minutes) cumulative
frequency
More than 15.5 25
More than 21.5 22
More than 27.5 16
More than 33.5 8
More than 39.5 4
More than 45.5 1
More than 51.5 0
 1-23

Then, the complete GFD is as follow

Time CB Freq. CM LCF MCF
(CL)

16-21 15.5-21.5 3 18.5 3 25

22-27 21.5-27.5 6 24.5 9 22
28-33 27.5-33.5 8 30.5 17 16
34-39 33.5-39.5 4 36.5 21 8
40-45 39.5-45.5 3 42.5 24 4
46-51 45.5-51.5 1 48.5 25 1
2.2.2 Diagrammatic and Graphic
Presentation.
1-24

2.2.2.1 Diagrammatic Presentation

 it uses for discrete as well as qualitative
data types.
And, it has 3 different types.
A. Pie charts B. Bar charts C.
Pictogram

A. Pie charts: a circle divided into sectors to

present the portion of the data set
 1-25

Steps to construct pie charts

Step 1: Calculate percentage frequency of each
component
(fi/n)*100
Step 2: Calculate the degree measures of each
sector
(fi/n)*360.
Step 3: Draw the circle using protractor and
compass.
 1-26

Example: Draw a pie-chart to represent

the following data on a certain family
expenditure.
Item Food Clothing House Fuel & Miscellaneous Total
rent light
Expenditur 50 30 20 15 35 150
e
% freq. 33.33 20 13.33 10 23.33 100

Angles 1200 720 480 360 840 3600

 1-27

solution

Figure: Pie-chart of the data on family

expenditure.
Item
Food
Clothing
House rent
Fuel and light
Miscellaneous
 - 1-28

Pie chart :

Class Frequency Percent Degree

Men 2500 25 90

Women 2000 20 72

Girls 4000 40 144

Boys 1500 15 54

Total 10000 100 360

1-29
 1-30

B. Bar Charts
 A set of bars (thick lines or narrow
rectangles) representing some magnitude
over time space.
They are useful for comparing aggregate
over time space.
Bars can be drawn either vertically or
horizontally.
There are different types of bar charts. The
most common being :-
Simple bar chart
Component or sub divided bar chart
Multiple bar charts
 1-31

I. Simple bar charts

 they use to display data on one variable.
 They are thick lines (narrow rectangles)
having the same breadth.
 The magnitude of a quantity is
represented by the height /length of the
bar.

Example: Draw a bar chart for the following

coffee production
Year 1990 1991 data
1992 from
19931990 to 1995.
1994 1995
Amount (in 50 75 92 64 100 120
1000
tones)
 1-32

Solution

Figure: Production of coffee from 1990 to 1995

Amount of coffee in 1000 tons

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

Production year
 1-33

II. Multiple bar charts


These are used to display data on more
than one variable.

They are used for comparing different
variables at the same time.
Example : Draw a multiple bar chart for the
data on production of coffee (in 1000 tons)
from 1991 to 1993 by region.

Region Production year

1991 1992 1993
Region 80 85 90
A
Region 120 165 120
B
 1-34

Answer

Figure: Production of coffee from 1991 to 1993

Amount of coffee in 1000 tons

in two regions.
200 Region
A
B

150

100

50

0
1991 1992 1993

Production year
 1-35

III. Component bar charts

 They use to show how a total (aggregate)
frequency is divided into its component
parts.

 The bars represent total value of a

variable with each total broken in to its
component parts and different colors
(designs) are used for identifications.
 1-36

Example : Draw a component bar chart for

the data on production of coffee (in 1000
tons) from 1991 to 1993.
 1-37

ANSWER

Amount of coffee in 1000 tons

250 Region
A
B
200

150

100

50

0
1991 1992 1993

Production year
 1-38

C. Pictogram: is a method to represent a

data by using means of pictures or
small symbols.

Example 2.23: The following table shows

the orange production in a plantation
from production year 1990-1993.
Represent the data by a pictogram.

Production year 1990 1991 1992 1993

Amount (in kg) 3000 3850 3500 5000

 1-39

answer

Figure: Pictogram of the data on Orange

productions from 1990 to 1993
 1-40

Break time: IQ Test (find number in ?)

 1-41

Answer

9 + 8 = 17
 1-42

2.2.2.2 Graphic Presentation for

Continuous Data
 Histogram, Frequency Polygon and
Cumulative Frequency Graph (Ogive) are
most commonly applied graphical
representations for continuous data.
A. Histogram:
 Its bases are marked by class boundaries
and its heights are proportional to the
frequencies.

Example: Construct a histogram for the

frequency distribution of the time spent by
the automobile workers.
 1-43

The complete GFD is as follow:

Time CB Freq. CM LCF MCF
(CL)

16-21 15.5-21.5 3 18.5 3 25

22-27 21.5-27.5 6 24.5 9 22
28-33 27.5-33.5 8 30.5 17 16
34-39 33.5-39.5 4 36.5 21 8
40-45 39.5-45.5 3 42.5 24 4
46-51 45.5-51.5 1 48.5 25 1
 1-44

answer
Figure: The time in minutes spent by
automobile workers to travel from home to
work.
 1-45

B. Frequency polygon

It uses class marks against class
frequencies and joining them by a set of
line segments.


Add two classes with zero frequencies at
the two ends of the frequency
distribution.

Example: Construct a frequency polygon

for the frequency distribution of the time
spent by the automobile workers.
 1-46

answer

Figure: The time in minutes spent by

automobile workers to travel from home to
work.
 1-47

C. Ogive (Cumulative frequency

graph)

Plotting the cumulative frequencies of a
distribution against the boundaries.

There are more than and less than
Ogives.

Example: Construct an Ogive for the

time spent by the automobile workers.
 1-48

The frequency distribution is:

Class LCF MCF

boundaries
15.5 0 25
21.5 3 22
27.5 9 16
33.5 17 8
39.5 21 4
45.5 24 1
51.5 25 0
 1-49

solution

Figure: The time in minutes spent by

automobile workers to travel from home to
work
 1-50

End of chapter 2!