CHAPTER 7:

ADVANCED SQL

Modern Database Management

12th Edition
Jeff Hoffer, Ramesh Venkataraman,
Heikki Topi

Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

 OBJECTIVES
 Define terms
 Write single and multiple table SQL
queries
 Define and use three types of joins
 Write noncorrelated and correlated
subqueries
 Understand and use SQL in procedural
languages (e.g. PHP, PL/SQL)
 Understand triggers and stored
procedures
Chapter 7
 Discuss SQL:2011 standard and its
Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-2
 PROCESSING MULTIPLE
 TABLES
Join–a relational operation that causes two
or more tables with a common domain to be
combined into a single table or view
 Equi-join–a join in which the joining
condition is based on equality between values
in the common columns; common columns
appear redundantly in the result table
 Natural join–an equi-join in which one of
the duplicate columns is eliminated in the
result table
The common columns in joined tables are usually the primary key
of the dominant table and the foreign key of the dependent table in
1:M relationships.
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-3
 PROCESSING MULTIPLE
TABLES
 Outer join–a join in which rows that do
not have matching values in common
columns are nonetheless included in the
result table (as opposed to inner join, in
which rows must have matching values in
order to appear in the result table)

 Union join–includes all data from each

table that was joined

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-4

 Figure 7-2
Visualization of different join types with results
returned in shaded area

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-5

THE FOLLOWING SLIDES INVOLVE QUERIES
OPERATING ON TABLES FROM THIS
ENTERPRISE DATA MODEL
(from Chapter 1, Figure 1-3)

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-6

Figure 7-1 Pine Valley Furniture Company Customer_T and
Order_T tables with pointers from customers to their orders

These tables are used in queries that follow

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-7
EQUI-JOIN EXAMPLE
 For each customer who placed an order,
what is the customer’s name and order
number?
SELECT customer.cus_code, cus_fname,
cus_lname, Inv_Number
FROM customer, invoice
WHERE customer.cus_code = invoice.CUS_CODE;

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-8

EQUI-JOIN EXAMPLE – ALTERNATIVE SYNTAX

SELECT customer.cus_code, cus_fname, cus_lname,

Inv_Number
FROM customer INNER JOIN invoice
ON customer.cus_code = invoice.CUS_CODE;

INNER JOIN clause is an alternative to WHERE clause, and is

used to match primary and foreign keys.

An INNER join will only return rows from each table that have
matching rows in the other.

This query produces same results as previous equi-join example.

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-9
NATURAL JOIN EXAMPLE

A natural join operation implicitly

creates a join condition for you on
columns with the same name
SELECT cus_code, cus_fname,
cus_lname, Inv_Number
FROM Customer NATURAL JOIN Invoice;

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-10

 OUTER JOIN EXAMPLE
 List the customer name, customer code, and
invoice number for all customers. Include
customer information even for customers that
do not have an invoice on file:
SELECT customer.cus_code, cus_fname, cus_lname,
Inv_Number
FROM customer LEFT OUTER JOIN invoice
ON customer.cus_code = invoice.CUS_CODE;
LEFT OUTER JOIN Unlike INNER join,
clause causes this will include
customer data to customer rows with
appear even if there is no matching order
rows
no corresponding
invoice data
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-11
Outer Join
Results

Unlike
INNER join,
this will
include
customer
rows with
no
matching
order rows

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-12

 MULTIPLE TABLE JOIN

EXAMPLE
Find the customer, invoice and product information for
all products that have been invoiced

SELECT customer.cus_code, cus_fname, cus_lname,

inv_line.Inv_Number, product.p_code, p_descript,
p_price, line_price
FROM customer JOIN invoice
ON customer.cus_code = invoice.cus_code
JOIN inv_line
ON invoice.inv_number = inv_line.INV_NUMBER
JOIN product
ON product.p_code = inv_line.p_code;

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-13

 Figure 7-5 Example of a self-join

From Chapter 2

Unary
1:N

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-14

SELF-JOIN EXAMPLE

SELECT e.employee_id AS The same table is

used on both sides
managers, m.employee_id as
of the join;
managed_emps distinguished using
FROM employees e JOIN table aliases.
employees m
ON e.employee_id = We are saying that
m.manager_id; the employee_ids
in e are the
managers’
Self-joins are usually used on tables with unary relationships.
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-15
 PROCESSING MULTIPLE TABLES
USING SUBQUERIES
 Subquery–placing an inner query (SELECT
statement) inside an outer query
 Options:
 In a condition of the WHERE clause
 As a “table” of the FROM clause
 Within the HAVING clause
 Subqueries can be:
 Noncorrelated–executed once for the entire
outer query
 Correlated–executed once for each row
returned by the outer query
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-16
 SUBQUERY EXAMPLE
 Show all customers who have placed an
order The IN operator will test to see if
the CUSTOMER_ID value of a
row is included in the list
returned from the subquery

Subquery is embedded in parentheses. In

this case it returns a list that will be used
in the WHERE clause of the outer query
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-17
 JOIN VS. SUBQUERY
 Some queries could be accomplished by
either a join or a subquery

Join version

Subquery version

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-18

 Figure 7-6 Graphical depiction of two ways to
answer a query with different types of joins

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-19

 Figure 7-6 Graphical depiction of two ways to
answer a query with different types of joins

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-20

 CORRELATED VS.
NONCORRELATED SUBQUERIES
 Noncorrelated subqueries:
 Do not depend on data from the outer
query
 Execute once for the entire outer
query
 Correlated subqueries:
 Make use of data from the outer
query
 Execute once for each row of the
outer query
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-21
 Figure 7-8a Processing a noncorrelated subquery

A noncorrelated subquery processes completely before the outer query begins.

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-22
 CORRELATED SUBQUERY
 EXAMPLE
Show all invoices that include saws
The EXISTS operator will return a
TRUE value if the subquery resulted
in a non-empty set, otherwise it
SELECT p_code, inv_numberreturns a FALSE
FROM inv_line
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM product
WHERE product.p_code = inv_line.p_code
AND p_descript LIKE '%saw%’
);
 A correlated subquery always The subquery is testing
refers to an attribute from a table for a value that comes
referenced in the outer query from the outer query
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-23
 Figure 7-8b
Processing a
correlated Subquery refers to outer-
subquery query data, so executes once
for each row of outer query

Note: Only
the orders
that involve
products with
Natural Ash
will be
included in
the final
results.

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-24

WE CAN TAKE THIS OPERATION MUCH FURTHER…
SELECT cus_fname, cus_lname
FROM customer
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT cus_code FROM invoice
WHERE customer.cus_code = invoice.cus_code AND
EXISTS
(SELECT p_code, inv_number
FROM inv_line
WHERE inv_line.inv_number = invoice.inv_number AND
EXISTS
(SELECT *
FROM product
WHERE product.p_code = inv_line.p_code
AND p_descript LIKE '%saw%'
)));
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-25
 ANOTHER SUBQUERY EXAMPLE /(DERIVED TABLE)
 Show all products whose standard price is
higher than the average price
One column of the subquery is
Subquery forms the an aggregate function that has
derived table used in the an alias name. That alias can
FROM clause of the outer
then be referred to in the outer
query
query.

The WHERE clause normally cannot include aggregate functions, but

because the aggregate is performed in the subquery its result can be
used in the outer query’s WHERE clause.

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-26

 UNION QUERIES
 Combine the output (union of multiple
queries) together into a single result table

First query

Combine

Second query

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-27

 Figure 7-9 Combining queries using UNION
Note: With
UNION queries,
the quantity and
data types of the
attributes in the
SELECT clauses
of both queries
must be identical.

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-28

 CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
USING CASE KEYWORD
This is available with
newer versions of
SQL, previously not
part of the
standard
Figure
7-10

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-29

MORE COMPLICATED SQL QUERIES
 Production databases contain hundreds

or even thousands of tables, and tables

could include hundreds of columns.
 So, sometimes query requirements can

be very complex.
 Sometimes it’s useful to combine

queries, through the use of Views.

 If you use a view (which is a query),

you could have another query that uses

the view as if it were a table.
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-30
EXAMPLE OF QUERY USING A VIEW

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-31

 TIPS FOR DEVELOPING
QUERIES
Be familiar with the data model
(entities and relationships)
 Understand the desired results
 Know the attributes desired in results
 Identify the entities that contain
desired attributes
 Review ERD
 Construct a WHERE equality for each
link
 Fine tune with GROUP BY and HAVING
clauses if needed
 Consider the effect on unusual data
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-32
QUERY EFFICIENCY
CONSIDERATIONS
 Instead of SELECT *, identify the
specific attributes in the SELECT
clause; this helps reduce network
traffic of result set
 Limit the number of subqueries; try

to make everything done in a single

query if possible
 If data is to be used many times,

make a separate query and store it

as7 a viewCopyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chapter 7-33
 GUIDELINES FOR BETTER
QUERY DESIGN
 Understand how indexes are used in query
processing
 Keep optimizer statistics up-to-date

 Use compatible data types for fields and

literals
 Write simple queries

 Break complex queries into multiple

simple parts
 Don’t nest one query inside another query

 Don’t combine a query with itself (if

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-34
GUIDELINES FOR BETTER
QUERY DESIGN (CONT.)
 Create temporary tables for groups of
queries
 Combine update operations
 Retrieve only the data you need
 Don’t have the DBMS sort without an index
 Learn!
 Consider the total query processing time
for ad hoc queries

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-35

ENSURING TRANSACTION
INTEGRITY
 Transaction = A discrete unit of work
that must be completely processed or
not processed at all
 May involve multiple updates
 If any update fails, then all other updates
must be cancelled
 SQL commands for transactions
 BEGIN TRANSACTION/END TRANSACTION
 Marks boundaries of a transaction
 COMMIT
 Makes all updates permanent
 ROLLBACK
 Cancels updates since the last COMMIT
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-36
 Figure 7-12 An SQL Transaction sequence (in pseudocode)

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-37

 DATA DICTIONARY
 FACILITIES
System tables that store metadata
 Users usually can view some of these tables
 Users are restricted from updating them
 Some examples in Oracle 12c
 DBA_TABLES – descriptions of tables
 DBA_CONSTRAINTS – description of
constraints
 DBA_USERS – information about the users of
the system
 Examples in Microsoft SQL Server 2014
 sys.columns – table and column definitions
 sys.indexes – table index information
 sys.foreign_key_columns – details about
columns in foreign key constraints
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-38
 SQL:2008
ENHANCEMENTS/EXTENSION
 User-defined
S data types (UDT)
 Subclasses of standard types or an object type

 Analytical functions (for OLAP)

 CEILING, FLOOR, SQRT, RANK, DENSE_RANK,
ROLLUP, CUBE, SAMPLE,
 WINDOW–improved numerical analysis capabilities
 New Data Types
 BIGINT, MULTISET (collection), XML
 CREATE TABLE LIKE–create a new table similar
to an existing one
 MERGE
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-39
 SQL:2008 ENHANCEMENTS
(CONT)
 Programming extensions
 Persistent Stored Modules (SQL/PSM)
 Capability to create and drop code
modules
 New statements:
 CASE, IF, LOOP, FOR, WHILE, etc.
 Makes SQL into a procedural language
 Oracle has propriety version called
PL/SQL, and Microsoft SQL Server has
Transact/SQL
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-40
 ROUTINES AND TRIGGERS
 Routines
 Program modules that execute on
demand
 Functions–routines that return
values and take input parameters
 Procedures–routines that do not
return values and can take input or
output parameters
 Triggers–routines that execute in
response to a database event
(INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE)
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-41
Figure7-13 Triggers contrasted with stored procedures (based on
Mullins 1995)
Procedures are called explicitly

Source: adapted from Mullins, 1995.

Triggers are event-driven
Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-42
 Figure 7-14 Simplified trigger syntax, SQL:2008

Example DML Trigger

Example DDL Trigger

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-43

 Figure 7-15 Syntax for creating a routine, SQL:2011

Example stored procedure

Calling the procedure

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-44

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-45
 EMBEDDED AND DYNAMIC
SQL
 Embedded SQL
 Including hard-coded SQL statements
in a program written in another
language such as C or Java
 Dynamic SQL
 Ability for an application program to
generate SQL code on the fly, as the
application is running

Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-46

 REASONS TO EMBED SQL IN
3GL
 Can create a more flexible,
accessible interface for the user
 Possible performance improvement
 Database security improvement;
grant access only to the
application instead of users

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Chapter 7 Copyright © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. 7-48