Evolution II
Questions?
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Evolution II
• Recap Evolution I
• Allele Frequencies
• Evidence for the Theory of Evolution
Biological Factors Drive Homosexuality
Race Is Real, But It’s Not Genetic
Recap: The Theory of Evolution
The principles of the neo-darwinian theory of evolution:
- Genetic variation or diversity in genotypes: arise through
recombinations and mutations
Mutations: changes in the DNA that may lead to changes in the
phenotype
- Natural selection or survival of the fittest: the organisms
that are best adapted (most ‘fit’) are most successful at passing
on their genes to the next generation
- Reproductive isolation: members of a population are unable
to reproduce with each other for a long period of time
Evolution of a Species, step by step
- Mutation and recombination: genetic variety. There is
diversity: individuals within a population differ in form,
size, color, behavior, etc.
- Selection pressure: changing circumstances cause
selection pressure on the population due to factors that
affect the organisms’ ability to survive
- Adaptation: some individuals happen to be better
adapted to the changing circumstances, due to their genes
- Natural selection: organisms with an advantage are
more likely to reproduce and pass on their genes
- Isolation: some individuals from a population are
separated for a long period of time
- Formation of a Species: a new species arises when the
different populations are no longer able to create fertile
Gene Pool
- There are different genotypes in a population
- Gene Pool = all the genes in a population
(all alleles in all loci of all individuals)
- The greater the gene pool, the greater the genetic
variation in a population
- When there is no selection pressure,
all alleles are passed on randomly.
Genes are passed on by
coincidence.
Gene Pool
Allele Frequencies
- The more common an allele is, the greater the
probability that it gets passed on
- Allele frequency = how common an allele is in a
population
- Allele frequencies remain constant when:
1. The population is large enough
2. There is no selection pressure (random reproduction)
3. There are no mutations occuring
This is the Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
The Hardy-Weinberg Principle in formulas
p+q=1 p = frequency of dominant allele A
q =frequency of recessive allele a
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
p² = frequency of the homozygous
dominant genotype (AA)
q² = frequency of the homozygous
recessive genotype (aa)
2pq = frequency of the heterozygous
video genotype (Aa)
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Binas 93 D4
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
You may be asked
- whether the Hardy-Weinberg Principle
applies in a population
- about the frequency of the dominant allele
(p) or the recessive allele (q)
- about the percentage that is homozygous
dominant (p2), heterozygous (2pq) or
homozygous recessive (q2)
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
An example
When determining someone’s blood group, you not only look at
which group (A, B, AB, O) they have, but also whether someone has
rhesus-positive or rhesus-negative blood. People who have rhesus-
negative blood, have genotype dd. People with rhesus-positive blood
have genotype DD or Dd. In Central Europe, the allele frequency of d
= 0.4.
1. What percentage of people in Central Europe has rhesus-negative
blood?
2. What percentage of people in Central Europe has genotype Dd?
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
1. What percentage of people in Central Europe has rhesus-negative blood?
– Given: q (allelefrequency d)
– Asked: q² (frequency genotype dd)
– Solution: q² = 0,4 × 0,4 = 0,16 16%
2. What percentage of people in Central Europe has genotype Dd?
– Given: q (frequency allele d)
– Asked: 2pq (frequency genotype Dd)
– Solution: p = 1 − 0,4 = 0,6
– 2pq = 2 × 0,4 × 0,6 = 0,48 48%
To check -> calculate p². Does the sum lead to 1? p2 + 2pq + q2
=1
p² = 0,6 × 0,6 = 0,36 -> 0,36 + 0,48 + 0,16 = 1
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
p² 2pq q²
√p² √q²
p×p q×q
1−p=
p q
1−q=
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Exam Question
Cats
Whether cats have striped fur is determined by alleles A (stripes) and a
(no stripes). There are also alleles that determine if the pattern of stripes
is regular (T) or irregular (t). Alleles A and T are dominant, not X-
chromosomal, and are not linked. Research on stray cats in a suburb of
London shows that the frequency of allele a in this large population of cats
is 40%. The frequency of allele t is 80%.
Calculate, using the Hardy-Weinberg principle, the percentage of irregular
striped cats that can be found in this suburb. Round your answer to a
whole number.
a = 40% = 0.4, so aa = 0.42 = 0.16 striped = 1 – 0.16 =
0.84 (AA and Aa)
t = 80% = 0.8, so tt = 0.82 = 0.64 irregular = 0.64
Irregular and striped = 0.84 x 0.64 = 0.54 = 54%
Deviations from the Rule
- Oftentimes the Hardy-Weinberg
Principle does not apply
- Selection pressure makes it
more likely that a certain allele
gets passed on, over another
- Mutations may cause new
dominant alleles with a selection
advantage
- Allele frequencies may shift in a
small population (genetic drift)
- Examples of genetic drift: the
bottleneck effect and the
founder effect
(the small gene pool has a
Bottleneck effect
Original Event that Surviving
population causes population
bottleneck
The Founder Effect
On average, two individuals in Africa are more
genetically dissimilar from each other than either one of
them is from an individual in Europe or Asia.
Homo sapiens evolved in Africa; the groups that
migrated out likely did not include all of the genetic
variation that built up in Africa. That’s an example of
what evolutionary biologists call the founder effect,
where migrant populations who settle in a new region
have less variation than the population where they
came from.
(Race Is Real, But It’s Not Genetic)
Microevolution vs Macroevolution
- Changes in allele frequencies in a population is
called microevolution
- The arisal of new species is called macroevolution
Microevolution Macroevolution
Co-evolution
When two species affect each other’s evolution
E.g., plants and their pollinators
Proof for the Theory of Evolution
Evolution is not "just a theory”. In science, a theory
addresses a broad question and is supported by a large
amount of data from multiple sources. Evolution is an
accepted scientific theory that is supported by robust
and complementary evidence.
Proof for the Theory of Evolution
- Fossil Record
- Comparative Anatomy
- Embryology
- Molecular Biology
- Biogeography
- Direct Observation
- Artificial Selection
- Experimental Evidence
Fossil Record
The fossil record shows gradual changes and transitional forms over
time.
Fossil Record
Finding out the age of fossils:
- Radioactive isotopes
- Earth layers
- Guide fossils
Fossil Record
Comparative Anatomy
Human Dog Bird Whale
Comparative Anatomy
Comparative Anatomy
Dolphin
Dog
Human
Bird
Bat Seal Sheep Mouse
Flying Swimming Running Grabbing
Comparative Anatomy
Homologous vs Analogous
Homologous structures:
Related organisms have similarly
shaped structures with different
functions:
from common ancestor
Analagous structures: unrelated
organisms have similarly shaped
structures with the same
function:
not from common ancestor
Vestigial Organs
Rudimentary organs: due to
adaptation certain organs
have lost their function and
they have partly
disappeared
Vestigial Organs
Embryology
fish salamander turtle chicken pig cow rabbit human
Embryology
Human embryo (7 weeks)
Tail? Gills?
Molecular Biology
Conserved Genes and Proteins: DNA and protein sequence
comparisons reveal evolutionary links between species. Our DNA
contains genes that are very similar to genes of other
organisms.
Proof for the Theory of Evolution
- Fossil Record
- Comparative Anatomy
- Embryology
- Molecular Biology
- Biogeography – The distribution of species aligns
with evolutionary history and continental drift.
- Direct Observation - Real-time evolutionary
changes (e.g., antibiotic resistance, peppered moths).
- Artificial Selection - Human-directed breeding
shows how selection drives change.
- Experimental Evidence - Lab studies
demonstrating evolutionary processes.
What’s Important – Lesson 14
- Understand the concepts of homologous vs
analogous evolution
Homework
1. Read 20.2, 20.3, 20.5, 20.6 in Advanced
Biology
2. Workbook Chapter 7: 7-11, 15-19, 21-23, 30-
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