Software Development Models

• Water Fall Model

- It is very simple to understand and use. In a
waterfall model, each phase must be completed
before the next phase can begin and there is no
overlapping in the phases.
- The waterfall Model illustrates the software
development process in a linear sequential flow. This
means that any phase in the development process
begins only if the previous phase is complete. In this
waterfall model, the phases do not overlap.
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Water fall model

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 Software Development Models
• Spiral Model
- It implements the potential for rapid development
of new versions of the software. Using the spiral
model, the software is developed in a series of
incremental releases. During the early iterations, the
additional release may be a paper model or
prototype. During later iterations, more and more
complete versions of the engineered system are
produced.

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Spiral Model

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System Testing

Objective
1: to make sure that the program
code implements the design
correctly.
2: to ensure that the software does
what the customer wants it to do.
Types of Testing
• Programme testing – Testing Individual
programs
• String Testing – Program Interconnection
Testing
• Combined module testing(System Testing) –
The entire programme testing as a whole
• User Acceptance Testing- How user are
satisfied with the working of system
 System Change over or
Conversion
• How to switch from old system to new system
once the system is ready for implementation?
• Consider the facts like system failures and
other risks usually happens during the initial
time of implementation.

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System Changeover

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System Changeover
• Direct Cutover
– Involves more risk than other changeover
methods
– Companies often choose the direct cutover
method for implementing commercial software
packages
– Cyclical information systems usually are converted
using the direct cutover method at the beginning
of a quarter, calendar year, or fiscal year

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System Changeover
• Parallel Operation
– Easier to verify that the new system is working
properly under parallel operation than under direct
cutover
– Running both systems might place a burden on the
operating environment and cause processing delay
– Is not practical if the old and new systems are
incompatible technically
– Also is inappropriate when the two systems perform
different functions
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System Changeover
• Pilot Operation
– The group that uses the new system first is called the
pilot site
– The old system continues to operate for the entire
organization
– After the system proves successful at the pilot site, it
is implemented in the rest of the organization, usually
using the direct cutover method
– Is a combination of parallel operation and direct
cutover methods

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System Changeover
• Phased Operation
– You give a part of the system to all users
– The risk of errors or failures is limited to the
implemented module only
– Is less expensive than full parallel operation
– Is not possible, however, if the system cannot be
separated easily into logical modules or segments

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System Changeover- Cost wise risk
comparison

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Software Maintenance

The process of modifying a software system or

component after delivery to correct faults, to
improve performance or other attributes, or
adapt to a changed environment

SE, Maintenance, Hans van Vliet, ©2 14

008
Relative distribution of
software/hardware costs
100

Hardware
Development
Percent of total cost

60

Software
20
Maintenance

r
SE, Maintenance, Hans van Vliet, ©2 15
008
Maintenance is thus concerned
with:

• correcting errors found after the software has

been delivered

• adapting the software to changing

requirements, changing environments, ...

SE, Maintenance, Hans van Vliet, ©2 16

008
Kinds of maintenance activities
• Corrective maintenance: correcting errors
• Adaptive maintenance: adapting to changes in
the environment (both hardware and
software)
• Perfective maintenance: adapting to changing
user requirements
• Preventive maintenance: increasing the
system’s maintainability

SE, Maintenance, Hans van Vliet, ©2 17

008
Distribution of maintenance
activities

corrective 21%

perfective 50%

adaptive 25%

preventive 4%

SE, Maintenance, Hans van Vliet, ©2 18

008
Business Process Reengineering
• “Reengineering is the fundamental
rethinking and radical redesign of
business processes to achieve
dramatic improvements in critical,
contemporary measures of
performance such as cost, quality,
service, and speed.”

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BPR & The Organization
BPR is Not?
• BPR may sometimes be mistaken for the following five tools:

• 1. Automation is an automatic, as opposed to human,

operation or control of a process, equipment or a system; or
the techniques and equipment used to achieve this.
Automation is most often applied to computer (or at least
electronic) control of a manufacturing process.
• 2. Downsizing is the reduction of expenditures in order to
become financial stable. Those expenditures could include
but are not limited to: the total number of employees at a
company, retirements, or spin-off companies.
BPR is Not?
• 3. Outsourcing involves paying another company to
provide the services a company might otherwise
have employed its own staff to perform. Outsourcing
is readily seen in the software development sector.
• 4. Continuous improvement emphasizes small
and measurable refinements to an organization's
current processes and systems. Continuous
improvements’ origins were derived from total
quality management (TQM) and Six Sigma.
What is a Process?
• A specific ordering of work activities across
time and space, with a beginning, an end, and
clearly identified inputs and outputs: a
structure for action.
What is a Business Process?
• A group of logically related tasks that use the
firm's resources to provide customer-oriented
results in support of the organization's
objectives
Why Reengineer?
• Customers
– Demanding
– Sophistication
– Changing Needs

• Competition
– Local
– Global
 Customer Demands

• expect us to know everything

• to make the right decisions
• to do it right now
• to do it with less resources
• to make no mistakes
• expect to be fully informed
Why Reengineer?
• Competition
– Local
– Global

• Change
– Technology
– Customer Preferences
 Business Process Reengineering
WHY ?
Integrate people, technology, & organizational culture
To Respond to rapidly changing technical & business
environment and customer’s needs to achieve Big
performance gains
Why Organizations Don’t
Reengineer?

• Political Resistance

• New Developments

• Fear of Unknown and Failure

Performance
• BPR seeks improvements of

– Cost
– Quality
– Service
– Speed
Key Steps

Select The Process & Appoint Process Team

Understand The Current Process

Develop & Communicate Vision Of Improved Process

Identify Action Plan

Execute Plan
1. Select the Process & Appoint
Process Team
• Two Crucial Tasks

– Select The Process to be Reengineered

– Appoint the Process Team to Lead the

Reengineering Initiative
Select the Process
• Review Business Strategy and Customer
Requirements

• Select Core Processes

• Understand Customer Needs

• Don’t Assume Anything

Select the Process
• Select Correct Path for Change

• Remember Assumptions can Hide Failures

• Competition and Choice to Go Elsewhere

• Ask - Questionnaires, Meetings, Focus Groups

Appoint the Process Team
• Appoint BPR Champion

• Identify Process Owners

• Establish Executive Improvement Team

• Provide Training to Executive Team

Core Skills Required
• Capacity to view the organization as a whole

• Ability to focus on end-customers

• Ability to challenge fundamental assumptions

• Courage to deliver and venture into unknown

areas
Core Skills Required
• Ability to assume individual and collective
responsibility
Use of Consultants
• Used to generate internal capacity
• Appropriate when a implementation is needed
quickly
• Ensure that adequate consultation is sought
from staff so that the initiative is organization-
led and not consultant-driven
• Control should never be handed over to the
consultant
2. Understand the Current Process

• Develop a Process Overview

• Clearly define the process
– Mission
– Scope
– Boundaries
• Set business and customer
measurements
• Understand customers expectations from
the process (staff including process team)
2. Understand the Current Process

• Clearly Identify Improvement

Opportunities
– Quality
– Rework
• Document the Process
– Cost
– Time
– Value Data
3. Understand the Current Process

• Carefully resolve any inconsistencies

– Existing -- New Process
– Ideal -- Realistic Process
3. Develop & Communicate Vision of
Improved Process
• Communicate with all employees so that they
are aware of the vision of the future

• Always provide information on the progress of

the BPR initiative - good and bad.

• Demonstrate assurance that the BPR initiative

is both necessary and properly managed
3. Develop & Communicate Vision of
Improved Process
• Promote individual development by indicating
options that are available
• Indicate actions required and those
responsible
• Tackle any actions that need resolution
• Direct communication to reinforce new
patterns of desired behavior
4. Identify Action Plan
• Develop an Improvement Plan

• Appoint Process Owners

• Simplify the Process to Reduce Process Time

• Remove any Bureaucracy that may hinder

implementation
4. Identify Action Plan
• Remove no-value-added activities

• Standardize Process and Automate Where

Possible

• Up-grade Equipment

• Plan/schedule the changes

4. Identify Action Plan
• Construct in-house metrics and targets

• Introduce and firmly establish a feedback

system

• Audit, Audit, Audit

5. Execute Plan
• Qualify/certify the process
• Perform periodic qualification reviews
• Define and eliminate process problems
• Evaluate the change impact on the business
and on customers
• Benchmark the process
• Provide advanced team training