Chapter 5: Process

Scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 5: Process Scheduling
 Basic Concepts
 Scheduling Criteria
 Scheduling Algorithms
 Thread Scheduling
 Operating Systems Example: Linux scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives

 To introduce CPU scheduling, which is the basis for

multiprogrammed operating systems
 To describe various CPU-scheduling algorithms
 To discuss evaluation criteria for selecting a CPU-scheduling
algorithm for a particular system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Basic Concepts

 Maximum CPU utilization obtained

with multiprogramming
 Multiple process are kept in
memory.
 When one process has to wait, the
OS takes the CPU away from that
and gives the CPU to another
process.
 CPU–I/O Burst Cycle – Process
execution consists of a cycle of
CPU execution and I/O wait
 CPU burst followed by I/O burst
 CPU burst distribution is of main
concern

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Histogram of CPU-burst Times

• An I/O-bound program typically has many short CPU bursts. A

CPU-bound program might have a few long CPU bursts.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 CPU Scheduler

 Short-term scheduler selects from among the processes in

ready queue, and allocates the CPU to one of them

Queue may be ordered in various ways

• A ready queue can be implemented as a FIFO queue, a priority

queue, a tree, or simply an unordered linked list.
• All the processes in the ready queue are lined up waiting for a
chance to run on the CPU.
• The records in the queues are generally process control blocks
(PCBs) of the processes.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
  CPU scheduling decisions may take place when a process:
1. Switches from running to waiting state (I/O interrupt)
2. Switches from running to ready state ( Interrupt occurs)
3. Switches from waiting to ready (completion of I/O)
4. Terminates
 In preemptive scheduling the CPU is allocated to the processes for
the limited time.
 While in Non-preemptive scheduling, the CPU is allocated to the
process till it terminates or switches to waiting state.
 Scheduling under 1 and 4 is non-preemptive
 All other scheduling is preemptive

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
  Windows 95 introduced pre-emptive scheduling, and all subsequent
versions of Windows operating systems have used preemptive scheduling.
 The Mac OS X operating system for the Macintosh also uses pre-emptive
scheduling
 Problems with pre-emptive scheduling are:
 Consider access to shared data (While one process is updating the
data, it is preempted)
 Consider preemption while in kernel mode (when kernel busy with
activity)
 Consider interrupts occurring during crucial OS activities

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Dispatcher

 Dispatcher module gives control of the CPU to the process

selected by the short-term scheduler; this involves:
 switching context
 switching to user mode
 jumping to the proper location in the user program to
restart that program
 Dispatch latency – time it takes for the dispatcher to stop
one process and start another running

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Scheduling Criteria

Many criteria have been suggested for comparing CPU-scheduling

algorithms. The choice of a particular algorithm may favor one class of
processes over another.
CPU utilization – keep the CPU as busy as possible (0 to 100%)
Throughput – # of processes that complete their execution per time unit
Turnaround time – amount of time to execute a particular process
Waiting time – amount of time a process has been waiting in the ready
queue
Response time – amount of time it takes from when a request was
submitted until the first response is produced, not output (for time-sharing
environment)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Scheduling Algorithm Optimization Criteria

 Max CPU utilization

 Max throughput
 Min turnaround time
 Min waiting time
 Min response time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 First- Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling

Process Burst Time

P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3
The Gantt Chart for the schedule is:

P1 P2 P3
0 24 27 30

 Waiting time for P1 = 0; P2 = 24; P3 = 27

 Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 FCFS Scheduling (Cont.)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order:
P2 , P 3 , P1
 The Gantt chart for the schedule is:

P2 P3 P1
0 3 6 30

 Waiting time for P1 = 6; P2 = 0; P3 = 3

 Average waiting time: (6 + 0 + 3)/3 = 3
 Much better than previous case
 Convoy effect - short process behind long process
 Consider one CPU-bound and many I/O-bound processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Question to Solve

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Shortest-Job-First (SJF) Scheduling

 Associate with each process the length of its next CPU burst
 Use these lengths to schedule the process with the shortest
time
 SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a given
set of processes
 The difficulty is knowing the length of the next CPU request

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of SJF

ProcessArriva l Time Burst Time

P1 0.0 6
P2 2.0 8
P3 4.0 7
P4 5.0 3

 SJF scheduling chart

P4 P1 P3 P2
0 3 9 16 24

 Average waiting time = (3 + 16 + 9 + 0) / 4 = 7

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Determining Length of Next CPU Burst

 Can only estimate the length – should be similar to the previous one
 Then pick process with shortest predicted next CPU burst

 Can be done by using the length of previous CPU bursts, using

exponential averaging
1. t n actual length of n th CPU burst
2.  n 1 predicted value for the next CPU burst
3.  , 0  1
4. Define :  n1  tn  1    n .
 Commonly, α set to ½
 Preemptive version called shortest-remaining-time-first

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Prediction of the Length of the Next CPU Burst

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Examples of Exponential Averaging
  =0
 n+1 = n
 Recent history does not count
  =1
 n+1 =  tn
 Only the actual last CPU burst counts
 If we expand the formula, we get:
n+1 =  tn+(1 - ) tn -1 + …
+(1 -  )j  tn -j + …
+(1 -  )n +1 0

 Since both  and (1 - ) are less than or equal to 1, each

successive term has less weight than its predecessor

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of Shortest-remaining-time-first
 SRTF is also called preemptive SJF
 Now we add the concepts of varying arrival times and preemption to
the analysis
ProcessAarri Arrival TimeT Burst Time
P1 0 8
P2 1 4
P3 2 9
P4 3 5
 Preemptive SJF Gantt Chart
P1 P2 P4 P1 P3
0 1 5 10 17 26

 Average waiting time = [(10-1)+(1-1)+(17-2)+5-3)]/4 = 26/4 = 6.5

msec

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process ID Arrival time Burst Time

P1 0 12

P2 2 4

P3 3 6

P4 8 5

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Priority Scheduling

 A priority number (integer) is associated with each process

 The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority

(smallest integer  highest priority)
 Preemptive
 Nonpreemptive

 SJF is priority scheduling where priority is the inverse of predicted

next CPU burst time (larger burst, low priority)

 Problem  Starvation – low priority processes may never execute

 Solution  Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of the

process (15 mins)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of Priority Scheduling

ProcessA arri Burst TimeT Priority

P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 4
P4 1 5
P5 5 2

 Priority scheduling Gantt Chart

 Average waiting time = 8.2 msec

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
  Turn around time= completion time - Arrival time
 Waiting time = TAT – Burst time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Round Robin (RR)

 Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum q),
usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the
process is preempted and added to the end of the ready queue.
 If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time quantum
is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in chunks of at
most q time units at once. No process waits more than (n-1)q
time units.
 Timer interrupts every quantum to schedule next process
 Performance
 q(time quantum) large  same as FCFS policy
 q small  large number of context switchs, otherwise
overhead is too high

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Time Quantum and Context Switch Time

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of RR with Time Quantum = 4
Process Burst Time
P1 24
P2 3
P3 3
 The Gantt chart is:

P1 P2 P3 P1 P1 P1 P1 P1
0 4 7 10 14 18 22 26 30

 Typically, higher average turnaround than SJF, but better

response
 q should be large compared to context switch time
 q usually 10ms to 100ms, context switch < 10 usec

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Turnaround Time Varies With The Time Quantum

80% of CPU bursts should

be shorter than q

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Process Arrival Time ms Burst in ms Priority

A 0 4 3

B 1 3 4

C 2 3 6

D 3 5 5

For the processes listed below, draw a chart illustrating their execution
using preemptive and non-preemptive priority scheduling. A larger priority
number has higher priority. Calculate the average TAT and WT.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Multilevel Queue
 Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues, eg:
 foreground (interactive)
 background (batch)
 Process permanently in a given queue
 Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm:
 foreground – RR
 background – FCFS
 Scheduling must be done between the queues:
 Fixed priority scheduling; (i.e., serve all from foreground then
from background). Possibility of starvation.
 Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU time
which it can schedule amongst its processes; i.e., 80% to
foreground in RR
 20% to background in FCFS

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Multilevel Queue Scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Multilevel Feedback Queue

 A process can move between the various queues; aging can be

implemented this way
 Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following
parameters:
 number of queues
 scheduling algorithms for each queue
 method used to determine when to upgrade a process
 method used to determine when to demote a process
 method used to determine which queue a process will enter
when that process needs service

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Example of Multilevel Feedback Queue

 Three queues:
 Q0 – RR with time quantum 8
milliseconds
 Q1 – RR time quantum 16 milliseconds
 Q2 – FCFS

 Scheduling
 A new job enters queue Q0 which is
served FCFS
 When it gains CPU, job receives 8
milliseconds
 If it does not finish in 8 milliseconds,
job is moved to queue Q1
 At Q1 job is again served FCFS and
receives 16 additional milliseconds
 If it still does not complete, it is
preempted and moved to queue Q2

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Thread Scheduling

 Distinction between user-level and kernel-level threads depends on

how they scheduled
 When threads supported, threads scheduled, not processes
 Many-to-one and many-to-many models, thread library schedules
user-level threads to run on LWP
 Known as process-contention scope (PCS) since scheduling
competition is within the process
 Typically done via priority set by programmer
 Kernel thread scheduled onto available CPU is system-contention
scope (SCS) – competition among all threads in system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Pthread Scheduling

 API allows specifying either PCS or SCS during thread creation

 PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS schedules threads using
PCS scheduling
 PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM schedules threads using
SCS scheduling
 Can be limited by OS – Linux and Mac OS X only allow
PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Pthread Scheduling API
#include <pthread.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#define NUM_THREADS 5
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
int i, scope;
pthread_t tid[NUM THREADS];
pthread_attr_t attr;
/* get the default attributes */
pthread_attr_init(&attr);
/* first inquire on the current scope */
if (pthread_attr_getscope(&attr, &scope) != 0)
fprintf(stderr, "Unable to get scheduling scope\n");
else {
if (scope == PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS)
printf("PTHREAD_SCOPE_PROCESS");
else if (scope == PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM)
printf("PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM");
else
fprintf(stderr, "Illegal scope value.\n");
}

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Pthread Scheduling API
/* set the scheduling algorithm to PCS or SCS */
pthread_attr_setscope(&attr, PTHREAD_SCOPE_SYSTEM);
/* create the threads */
for (i = 0; i < NUM_THREADS; i++)
pthread_create(&tid[i],&attr,runner,NULL);
/* now join on each thread */
for (i = 0; i < NUM_THREADS; i++)
pthread_join(tid[i], NULL);
}
/* Each thread will begin control in this function */
void *runner(void *param)
{
/* do some work ... */
pthread_exit(0);
}

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Operating System Examples

 Linux scheduling

 Windows scheduling

 Solaris scheduling

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Linux Scheduling Through Version 2.5

 Prior to version 2.5 Unix scheduler were not supporting SMP

systems and not scale well as number of tasks on the system
grows.
 New scheduler supports SMP and interactive tasks.
 Linux scheduler is a preemptive and priority based algorithm with 2
separate priority range: 0 to 99 (real time) and 100 to 140 (nice
value).
 Lower value indicates higher priority
 Linux assigns higher priority task longer time quanta (200ms) and
lower priority task shorter time quanta (10ms).
 A runnable task executes on the CPU until its time remaining in time
slice.
 When task has exhausted its time, it is considered as expired.
 The kernel maintains list of runnable tasks in runqueue data
structure.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
  Because of SMP, each processor maintains its own runqueue and
schedules itself independently.
 Each runqueue contains two priority arrays – active and expired.
 When active array becomes empty the expired array becomes active array
and vice versa. New priorities and time slice will be assigned.
 Real time tasks are assigned static priorities and other tasks have dynamic
priorities based on nice value plus/minus 5 value.
 Recalculation of a task’s dynamic priority occurs when the task has
exhausted its time quantum and is to be moved to the expired array.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 6.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 6

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013