Operatin

g
Systems: Chapter 2
Internals
and Operating
Design System Overview
Principle Eighth Edition
Global Edition
s By William Stallings
 Operating System
A program that controls the execution of
application programs
 Aninterface between applications and
hardware

Main objectives
of an OS:
•
convenience
•
efficiency
•
ability to evolve
 Operating System
Services
 Program development
 Program execution
 Access I/O devices
 Controlled access to files
 System access
 Error detection and response
 Accounting
OS Services
 Accounting
 collectstatistics
 monitor performance
 used to anticipate future
enhancements
 used for billing users
 Key Interfaces

 Instruction set architecture (ISA)

 Application binary interface (ABI)
 Application programming interface
(API)
 The Role of an OS
A computer is a set of resources
for the movement, storage, and
processing of data
 TheOS is responsible for managing
these resources
Operating System
as Software
 Functionsin the same way as
ordinary computer software
 Program,or suite of programs,
executed by the processor
 Frequently relinquishes control and
must depend on the processor to
allow it to regain control
Kernel (Nucleus):
Contains the most grequently
used functions in OS.
 Evolution of Operating
Systems

 A major OS will evolve over time

for a number of reasons:
hardware upgrades

new types of hardware

new services

Fixes
 Evolution of
Operating Systems
 Stages include:

Time
Sharing
Multiprogra Systems
mmed
Batch
Simple Systems
Batch
Systems
Serial
Processi
ng
 Serial Processing
Earliest
Problems:
Computers:
 Scheduling:
 No operating system  most installations used a
 programmers hardcopy sign-up sheet to
interacted directly with reserve computer time
the computer hardware  time allocations could
run short or long,
 Computers ran from a
resulting in wasted
console with display lights,
computer time
toggle switches, some form
of input device, and a printer  Setup time
 Users have access to the
 a considerable amount of
computer in “series” time was spent just on
setting up the program to
run
 Simple Batch
Systems
 Early computers were very expensive
 important to maximize processor utilization
 Monitor (1st batch OS)
 user no longer has direct access to processor
 job is submitted to computer operator who
batches them together and places them on
an input device
 program branches back to the monitor when
finished
 Monitor Point of
View
 Monitor controls the
sequence of events
 Resident Monitor is
software always in memory
 Monitor reads in job one at
a time and gives control
 Job returns control to
monitor
 Processor Point of
View
 Processor executes instruction from the
memory containing the monitor
 Executes the instructions in the user program
until it encounters an ending or error condition
 “control is passed to a job” means processor is
fetching and executing instructions in a user
program
 “control is returned to the monitor” means that
the processor is fetching and executing
instructions from the monitor program
 Job Control Language
(JCL)
pecial type of programming language used to provide instructions to the monitor

what compiler to use

what data to use

 Desirable Hardware
Features
Memory protection for monitor

• while the user program is executing, it must not alter the memory area containing the monitor

Timer

• prevents a job from monopolizing the system

Privileged instructions

• can only be executed by the monitor

Interrupts

• gives OS more flexibility in controlling user programs (Early OSs do NOT have)
 Modes of Operation

User Mode Kernel Mode

• user program executes in • monitor executes in kernel
user mode mode
• certain areas of memory are • privileged instructions may
protected from user access be executed
• certain instructions may not • protected areas of memory
be executed may be accessed
Simple Batch System
Overhead
 Processor time alternates between execution of
user programs and execution of the monitor
 Sacrifices:
 some main memory is now given over to the
monitor
 some processor time is consumed by the
monitor
 Despite overhead, the simple batch system
improves utilization of the computer
Multiprogrammed
Batch Systems
 Processor is
often idle
 even with
automatic
job
sequencing
 I/O devices
are slow
compared
to
processor
Uniprogramming

 The processor spends a certain

amount of time executing, until it
reaches an I/O instruction; it must
then wait until that I/O instruction
concludes before proceeding
Multiprogramming

 There must be enough memory to hold the OS

(resident monitor) and one user program
 When one job needs to wait for I/O, the processor can
switch to the other job, which is likely not waiting for
I/O
 Multiprogramming

 Multiprogramming
 also known as multitasking
 memory is expanded to hold three, four, or more
programs and switch among all of them
Multiprogramming
Example

Table 2.1 Sample Program Execution Attributes

Effects on Resource
Utilization

Table 2.2 Effects of Multiprogramming on Resource Utilization

Values are average
 Time-Sharing
Systems
 Can be used to handle multiple interactive
jobs
 Processor time is shared among multiple
users
 Multiple users simultaneously access the
system through terminals, with the OS
interleaving the execution of each user
program in a short burst or quantum of
computation
 Batch
Multiprogramming
vs. Time Sharing

Table 2.3 Batch Multiprogramming versus Time Sharing

 Compatible Time-
Sharing Systems
CTSS Time Slicing
 System clock generates interrupts
 One of the first time-sharing at a rate of approximately one
operating systems every 0.2 seconds

 At each interrupt OS regained

 Developed at MIT by a group
control and could assign processor
known as Project MAC to another user
 Ran on a computer with 32,000  At regular time intervals the
36-bit words of main memory, current user would be preempted
with the resident monitor and another user loaded in
consuming 5000 of that
 Old user programs and data were
 To simplify both the monitor and written out to disk
memory management a  Old user program code and data
program was always loaded to were restored in main memory
start at the location of the when that program was next given
5000th word a turn
Major Achievements
 Operating
Systems are among the
Major advances in development
include:
most complex pieces of software ever
• processes
• memory management
developed • information protection and security
• scheduling and resource
management
• system structure
 Process
 Fundamental to the structure of operating
systems
A process can be defined as:

a program in execution

an instance of a running program

the entity that can be assigned to, and executed
on, a processor
a unit of activity characterized by a single
sequential thread of execution, a current state,
and an associated set of system resources
 Errors when
designing
OS
 Improper  Nondeterminate
synchronization
program operation
 ensure a process waiting for
an I/O device receives the  program should only
signal depend on input to it,
 improper design of the not relying on common
signaling mechanism can
memory areas
result in loss or duplication
 Deadlocks
 Failed mutual  it is possible for two or
exclusion more programs to be
 more than one user or hung up waiting for
program attempts to each other
make use of a shared
resource at the same
time
 Components of
a Process
A  The execution context is
process
contains three essential:
 it is the internal data by
components: which the OS is able to
 an executable supervise and control the
program process
 includes the contents of the
 the associated data
various process registers
needed by the  includes information such
program (variables, as the priority of the
work space, buffers, process and whether the
etc.) process is waiting for the
 the execution completion of a particular
I/O event
context (or “process
Process
Management
 The entire state of
the process at any
instant is contained in
its context

 New features can be

designed and
incorporated into the
OS by expanding the
context to include any
new information
needed to support the
feature
 Memory
Management
 TheOS has five principal storage
management responsibilities:

long-
automatic support
protectio term
allocation of
process n and storage
and modular
isolation access
managem program
control (via file
ent ming
system)
 Virtual Memory
(VM)
 Typically, operating systems meet these
requirements with virtual memory and file
system facilities.
 VM is a facility that allows programs to address
memory from a logical point of view, without
regard to the amount of main memory physically
available
 Conceived to meet the requirement of having
multiple user jobs reside in main memory
concurrently
Paging
 Allows processes to be comprised of a number
of fixed-size blocks, called pages
 Program references a word by means of a
virtual address
 consists of a page number and an offset within
the page
 each page may be located anywhere in main
memory
 Provides for a dynamic mapping between the
virtual address used in the program and a real
(or physical) address in main memory
 Information
Protection
and Security
 The nature of the Main
threat that concerns issue availabilit
an organization will s y
vary greatly
depending on the
circumstances authentici confidentialit
ty y
 The problem data
involves controlling integrity
access to computer
systems and the
information stored
in them
 Scheduling and
Resource
Management
 Keyresponsibility
of an OS is
managing
efficienc fairness
resources y

 Resource
allocation policies differential
responsiven
must consider: ess
OS Queues
 Short-term queue:
 consists of processes that are in main memory and are
ready to run as soon as the processor is made
available.
 Short-term scheduler determines which one will use
processor first: round-robin, priority order, etc.

 The long-term queue:

 is a list of new jobs waiting to use the processor.
 OS adds jobs to the system by transferring a process
from the long-term queue to the short-term queue.

 I/O queue: Many process may request the use

of the same I/O device. Thus, they are lined up
 Different
Architectural
Approaches
 Demands on operating systems
require new ways of organizing the
OS
Different approaches and design elements have
been tried:

• microkernel architecture
• multithreading
• symmetric multiprocessing
• distributed operating systems
• object-oriented design
 Microkernel
Architecture
 Assignsonly a few essential functions to
the kernel:
interprocess
address basic
communicatio
spaces scheduling
n (IPC)

 The approach:

is well suited
simplifies
provides to a
implementatio
flexibility distributed
n
environment
 Multithreading
 Technique in which a process, executing an
application, is divided into threads that can run
concurrently
Thread
• dispatchable unit of work
• includes a processor context and its own data area to enable
subroutine branching
• executes sequentially and is interruptible

Process
• a collection of one or more threads and associated system
resources
• programmer has greater control over the modularity of the
application and the timing of application related events
 Symmetric
Multiprocessing
(SMP)
 Term that refers to a computer hardware
architecture and also to the OS behavior that
exploits that architecture
 Several processes can run in parallel
 Multiple processors are transparent to the user
 these processors share same main memory and
I/O facilities
 all processors can perform same functions

 The OS takes care of scheduling of threads or

processes on individual processors and of
synchronization among processors
SMP Advantages
more than one process can be
Performan
running simultaneously, each
ce
on a different processor

failure of a single processor

Availability
does not halt the system

performance of a system
Increment
can be enhanced by adding
al Growth
an additional processor

vendors can offer a range of

products based on the number
Scaling
of processors configured in the
system
 OS Design
Distributed Object-Oriented
Operating System Design
 Provides the illusion of
 Used for adding modular
 a single main memory extensions to a small
space kernel
 single secondary memory  Enables programmers to
space
customize an operating
 unified access facilities system without disrupting
 State of the art for distributed
system integrity
operating systems lags that of
uniprocessor and SMP
 Eases the development of
operating systems distributed tools and full-
blown distributed operating
systems
Fault Tolerance
 Refers to the ability of a system or component to
continue normal operation despite the presence of
hardware or software faults
 Typically involves some degree of redundancy
 Intended to increase the reliability of a system
 typically comes with a cost in financial terms or
performance
 The extent adoption of fault tolerance measures
must be determined by how critical the resource is
 Fundamental
Concepts
 The basic measures are:
 Reliability
 R(t)
 defined as the probability of its correct operation
up to time t given that the system was operating
correctly at time t=o
 Mean time to repair (MTTR)
 is the average time it takes to repair or replace a
faulty element
 Availability
 defined as the fraction of time the system is
available to service users’ requests
 Fault Categories
 Permanent Spatial (physical) redundancy
 A fault that, after it
occurs, is always involves the use of multiple components that either perform
the same function simultaneously or are configured so that
present one component is available as a backup in case of the failure
 the fault persists until of another component
the faulty component
is replaced or repaired Temporal redundancy
 Temporary involves repeating a function or operation when an error is
detected
 A fault that is not effective with temporary faults but not useful for permanent
present all the time for faults
all operating
conditions Information redundancy
 can be classified as
 Transient – a fault provides fault tolerance by replicating or coding data in such
that occurs only a way that bit errors can be both detected and corrected
once
 Intermittent – a
 Operating System
Mechanisms
 A number of techniques can be incorporated
into OS software to support fault tolerance:
 process isolation
 Concurrency (Chapter 5 and 6)
 virtual machines (Chapter 14)
 checkpoints and rollbacks
 Like system restore in Win X!
 Virtual Machine
Approach
 Allows one or more cores to be
dedicated to a particular process and
then leave the processor alone to devote
its efforts to that process
 MulticoreOS could then act as a
hypervisor that makes a high-level
decision to allocate cores to applications
but does little in the way of resource
allocation beyond that
 Client/Server Model
 Windows OS services,  Advantages:
environmental  it simplifies the Executive
subsystems, and  it improves reliability
applications are all  it provides a uniform
structured using the means for applications to
client/server model communicate with
services via RPCs without
 Common in distributed restricting flexibility
systems, but can be  it provides a suitable
used internal to a base for distributed
single system computing
 Processes
communicate via RPC
 Threads and SMP
 Two important characteristics of Windows are its
support for threads and for symmetric
multiprocessing
 OS routines can(SMP)
run on any available processor, and different
routines can execute simultaneously on different processors
 Windows supports the use of multiple threads of execution
within a single process. Multiple threads within the same
process may execute on different processors simultaneously
 server processes may use multiple threads to process requests
from more than one client simultaneously
 Windows provides mechanisms for sharing data and resources
between processes and flexible interprocess communication
capabilities
 Traditional UNIX
Systems
 Were developed at Bell Labs and became operational on a PDP-7 in 1970
 Incorporated many ideas from Multics
 PDP-11 was a milestone because it first showed that UNIX would be an OS for
all computers
 Next milestone was rewriting UNIX in the programming language C
 demonstrated the advantages of using a high-level language for system
code
 Was described in a technical journal for the first time in 1974
 First widely available version outside Bell Labs was Version 6 in 1976
 Version 7, released in 1978 is the ancestor of most modern UNIX systems
 Most important of the non-AT&T systems was UNIX BSD (Berkeley Software
Distribution)
 Modern UNIX
Systems
 System V Release 4 (SVR4)
 Solaris

 BSD

 Linux
 Solaris 10
 Sun’s SVR4-based UNIX release
 Provides all of the features of SVR4 plus a
number of more advanced features such
as:
 afully preemptable, multithreaded
kernel
 full support for SMP
 an object-oriented interface to file
systems
 Most widely used and most successful
commercial UNIX implementation
 LINUX Overview
 Started out as a UNIX variant for the IBM PC
 Linus Torvalds, a Finnish student of computer science, wrote the
initial version
 Linux was first posted on the Internet in 1991
 Today it is a full-featured UNIX system that runs on several
platforms
 Is free and the source code is available
 Key to success has been the availability of free software packages
 Highly modular and easily configured
 Android Operating
System
 A Linux-based system  Most recent version is
originally designed for Android 6.0.1
touchscreen mobile devices "Marshmallow" (Dec. 9,
such as smartphones and 2015)
tablet computers
 The Open Handset Alliance
 The most popular mobile OS (OHA) was responsible for
 Development was done by the Android OS releases as
Android Inc., which was an open platform
bought by Google in 2005
 The open-source nature of
 1st commercial version Android has been the key
(Android 1.0) was released in to its success
2008
  Every Android application
runs in its own process with
its own instance of the
Dalvik virtual machine
Android (DVM)
 DVM executes files in the
Runtime Dalvik Executable (.dex)
format
 Component includes a set
of core libraries that
provides most of the
functionality available in
the core libraries of the
Java programming
language
 To execute an operation the
DVM calls on the
corresponding C/C++
library using the Java
Native Interface (JNI)
 Summary
 Fault tolerance
 Operating system
 Fundamental concepts
objectives and functions
 Faults
 User/computer interface
 OS mechanisms
 Resource manager
 OS design considerations for
 Evolution of operating
multiprocessor and multicore
systems
 Microsoft Windows overview
 Serial processing
 Simple/multiprogrammed/
 Traditional Unix systems
 History/description
time-sharing batch
 Modern Unix systems
systems
 Linux
 Major achievements
 Android
 Developments leading to
modern operating systems