Distinguishing Managership from
Leadership
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The Place of Leadership
• Can Anyone Be a Leader?
– Some people don’t have what it
takes to be a leader
– Some people are more motivated to
lead than others
• Is Leadership Always Necessary?
– Some people don’t need leaders
– Leaders need to be aware of followers’ needs
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Early Leadership Theories
• Trait Theories (1920s–30s)
– Research that focused on identifying personal characteristics
that differentiated leaders from nonleaders was unsuccessful
– Later research on the leadership process identified seven traits
associated with successful leadership:
1. Drive
2. desire to lead
3. honesty and integrity
4. self-confidence
5. Intelligence
6. job-relevant knowledge
7. extraversion
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Behavioural Theories
• University of Iowa Studies (Kurt Lewin)
– Identified three leadership styles:
• Autocratic style: centralized authority, low participation
• Democratic style: involvement, high participation,
feedback
• Laissez-faire style: hands-off management
– Research findings: mixed results
• No specific style was consistently better for producing
better performance
• Employees were more satisfied under a democratic leader
than an autocratic leader
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Behavioural Theories (cont’d)
• Ohio State Studies
– Identified two dimensions of leader behaviour
• Initiating structure: the role of the leader in defining
his or her role and the roles of group members
• Consideration: the leader’s mutual trust and respect for
group members’ ideas and feelings
• University of Michigan Studies
– Identified two dimensions of leader behaviour
• Employee oriented: emphasizing personal relationships
• Production oriented: emphasizing task accomplishment
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Behavioural Theories (cont’d)
• Managerial Grid
– Appraises leadership styles using two
dimensions:
• Concern for people
• Concern for production
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Contingency Theories of
Leadership
• The Fiedler Model
– Effective group performance depends upon the match
between the leader’s style of interacting with
followers and the degree to which the situation allows
the leader to control and influence
– Assumptions:
• Different situations require different leadership styles
• Leaders do not readily change leadership styles
– Matching the leader to the situation or changing the situation to
make it favourable to the leader is required
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT)
– Successful leadership is achieved by selecting a
leadership style that matches the level of the
followers’ readiness
• Acceptance: do followers accept or reject a leader?
• Readiness: do followers have the ability and
willingness to accomplish a specific task?
– Leaders must give up control as followers
become more competent
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT) (cont’d)
– Creates four specific leadership styles
incorporating Fiedler’s two leadership
dimensions:
• Telling: high task–low relationship leadership
• Selling: high task–high relationship leadership
• Participating: low task–high relationship leadership
• Delegating: low task–low relationship leadership
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
• Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership
Theory (SLT) (cont’d)
– Identifies four stages of follower readiness:
• R1: followers are unable and unwilling
• R2: followers are unable but willing
• R3: followers are able but unwilling
• R4: followers are able and willing
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
• Leader Participation Model (Vroom and
Yetton)
– Leader behaviour must be adjusted to reflect the
task structure
– Suggests appropriate participation level in
decision making
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
• Leader Participation Model Contingencies:
• The Leader Participation Model identifies a number
of factors that determine how decisions should be
made.
– Decision significance
– Importance of commitment
– Leader expertise
– Likelihood of commitment
– Group support
– Group expertise
– Team competence
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Leadership Styles: Vroom Leader
Participation Model
• Decide: Leader makes the decision alone and
either announces or sells it to group.
• Consult IndividuallyLeader presents the
problem to group members individually, gets
their suggestions, and then makes the decision.
• Consult GroupLeader presents the problem to
group members in a meeting, gets their
suggestions, and then makes the decision.
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• Facilitate:Leader presents the problem to the
group in a meeting and, acting as facilitator,
defines the problem and the boundaries within
which a decision must be made.
• Delegate Leader permits the group to make the
decision within prescribed limits.
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Contingency Theories… (cont’d)
• Path-Goal Model
– Leader’s job is to assist his or her followers in
achieving organizational goals
– Leader’s style depends on the situation:
• Directive
• Supportive
• Participative
• Achievement-oriented
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Cutting-Edge Approaches to Leadership
Transactional, Transformational, Charismatic, and Visionary
• Transactional Leadership
– Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in
the direction of established goals by clarifying
role and task requirements
• Transformational Leadership
– Leaders who inspire followers to go beyond their
own self-interests for the good of the
organization
– Leaders who have a profound and extraordinary
effect on their followers
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Cutting-Edge Approaches to Leadership
Transactional, Transformational, Charismatic, and Visionary
• Charismatic Leadership
– An enthusiastic, self-confident leader whose
personality and actions influence people to
behave in certain ways
– Characteristics of charismatic leaders:
• Have a vision
• Are able to articulate the vision
• Are willing to take risks to achieve the vision
• Are sensitive to the environment and to follower needs
• Exhibit behaviours that are out of the ordinary
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Cutting-Edge Approaches to Leadership
Transactional, Transformational, Charismatic, and Visionary
• Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)
– Effects of Charismatic Leadership
• Increased motivation, greater satisfaction
• More profitable companies
• Charismatic leadership may have a downside:
– After recent ethics scandals, some agreement that CEOs
with less vision, and more ethical and corporate
responsibility, might be more desirable
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Cutting-Edge Approaches to Leadership
Transactional, Transformational, Charismatic, and Visionary
• Visionary Leadership
– A leader who creates and articulates a realistic,
credible, and attractive vision of the future that
improves upon the present situation
– Visionary leaders have the ability to:
• Explain the vision to others
• Express the vision not just verbally but through
behaviour
• Extend or apply the vision to different leadership
contexts
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Specific Roles of
Team Leadership
Liaison with
Coach External
Constituencies
Conflict Team Leader Troubleshooter
Manager Roles
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Current Leadership Issues
• Managing Power
– Legitimate power – Expert power
• The power a leader has • The influence a leader
as a result of his or her can exert as a result of
position his or her expertise,
– Coercive power skills, or knowledge
• The power a leader has – Referent power
to punish or control
• The power of a leader
– Reward power that arises because of a
• The power to give person’s desirable
positive benefits or resources or admired
rewards personal traits
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Developing Trust
• Credibility (of a Leader)
– The assessment, by a leader’s followers, of the
leader’s honesty, competence, and ability to inspire
• Trust
– The belief of followers and others in the integrity,
character, and ability of a leader
• Dimensions of trust: integrity, competence, consistency,
loyalty, and openness
– Trust is related to increases in job performance,
organizational citizenship behaviours, job
satisfaction, and organization commitment
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Tips for Managers:
Suggestions for Building Trust
Practise openness
Be fair
Speak your feelings
Tell the truth
Show consistency
Fulfill your promises
Maintain confidences
Demonstrate competence
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Providing Moral Leadership
• Addressess both the moral content of a leader’s
goals and the means used to achieve those
goals
• Ethical leadership is more than being ethical
– Includes reinforcing ethics through
organizational mechanisms
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Empowering Employees
• Empowerment
– Involves increasing the decision-making
discretion of workers
– Why empower employees?
• Quicker responses to problems and faster decisions
• Relieves managers to work on other problems
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Empowerment: Cautions
• The following conditions should be met for
empowerment to be introduced:
– Clear definition of company’s values and mission
– Employees have relevant skills
– Employees need to be supported, not criticized,
when performing
– Employees need to be recognized for their efforts
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• Korean leaders are expected to be paternalistic toward employees.
• Arab leaders who show kindness or generosity without being asked
to do so are seen by other Arabs as weak.
• Japanese leaders are expected to be humble and speak frequently.
• Scandinavian and Dutch leaders who single out individuals with
public praise are likely to embarrass, not energize, those
individuals.
• Malaysian leaders are expected to show compassion while using
more of an autocratic than a participative style.
• Effective German leaders are characterized by high performance
orientation, low compassion, low self-protection, low team
orientation, high autonomy, and high participation
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Cross-Cultural Leadership
• Universal Elements of Effective Leadership
– Vision
– Foresight
– Providing encouragement
– Trustworthiness
– Dynamism
– Positiveness
– Proactiveness
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Gender Differences and
Leadership
• Research Findings
– Males and females use different
styles:
• Women tend to adopt a more democratic
or participative style unless in a male-
dominated job
• Women tend to use transformational
leadership
• Men tend to use transactional leadership
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