The Bits and Bytes of Computer

Networking

Google
 Agenda

1 2 3 4 5
Introduction The TCP/IP The Basics of The Physical The Data Link
Five-Layer Networking Layer Layer
Network Devices
Model

2 The Bits and Bytes of 2025

Computer Networking
Introduction
​ etworking
N
------------

Protocol - A defined set of standards that

computers must follow in order to
communicate properly;
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
computers communicate with each other;

3
 TCP/IP Five-Layer Model

4 The Bits and Bytes of 2025

Computer Networking
 Layers​
PHYSICAL LAYER DATA LINK LAYER NETWORK LAYER
Responsible for defining a Enables different
common way of interpreting networks to
Represents the physical
these signals so network communicate with each
devices that devices can communicate.
interconnect computers, other through a devices
specification, joiner, Many protocols for the Data known as routers.
specifications of the link layer - most common -
signals sent through, Ethernet, although wireless A collection of networks
cabling, connectors and technologies are becoming connected together
popular. through routers is called
sending signals.
the Internetwork.
The data link layer is
​ responsible to get data
across a single link. The most common
protocol used here is the
IP - Internet Protocol.

5 The Bits and Bytes of 20XX

Computer Networking
 Layers​
TRANSPOT LAYER​ Application Layer
Sorts out which client and Many protocols - Cultivate one-to-one
server programs are application specific. customer service with
supposed to get the data. robust ideas​
Most common protocol - TCP
Protocols allowto browse
- Transmission Control the web or send receive Maximize timely
Protocol - provides emails, etc. deliverables for real-time
reliability. schemas

Another protocol - UDP -

User Datagram Protocol -
does not provide data
reliability.
​

6 The Bits and Bytes of 20XX

Computer Networking
Basics of Networking Devices
------------------------------

1. Cables - Connect different devices to each other allowing data to be transmitted over
them.

Introduction
- 2 types - Copper or fiber, binary data value is sent through these copper cables by
changing the voltage and the system at the receiving end is able to interpret these voltage
canges and the binary data.

a. The most common forms of copper twisted-pair cables used in networking are Cat5,
Cat5e, and Cat6 cables; - Cat -> category -
​Networking different physical categories like the
number of------------
twists, lengths and transfer rates, inteferences, crosstalk.
- Crosstalk - When an electrical pulse on one wire is accidently detected on another wire.
Protocol - A defined set of standards that
b. Fiber optic cablesmust
computers - Contain
follow individual
in order to optical fiber, which are tiny tubes made out of glass
about thecommunicate
width of a human hair;
properly;
- Pulses of light are used to represent ones and zeros of the data;
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
- It is used in places where there is a lot of electromagnetic interfernces;
computers communicate with each other;
- Higher speed, longer distances, no data loss, expensive;

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2. Hubs and Switches
----------------------
* Hub - A physical layer device that allows for connections from many computers at once, it could cause a
collision domain;
- Collison domain - a network segment where only one device can communicate at a time, otherwise
electrical signal from other systems will interfere, slows;

Introduction
* Switch - A Data-link layer device - It inspects the contents of the Ethernet protocol data being sent
around the network, determine which system the data is intended for and send it to it; Eliminates collision
domain;

3. Routers
------------ ​Networking
* Hubs and Switches are the primary devices used to connect computers on a single network , usually
------------
referred to as LAN (Local Area Network);
- Router - A device that knows how to forward data between independent networks;
- It operates Protocol
at the 3rd - Alayer
defined set of standards
- Network Layer; that
- A router detemines
computers themust
IP address
follow to determine
in order to where to send the data;
- Routers store internal tables
communicate containing information about howto route traffic between lots of different
properly;
networks in the world;
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
- Home network , local office netowrks have less sophisticated routers, whereas the one connected to the
ISP are calledcomputers
core routers communicate
which handle with each
a lot other; and functionality;
of traffic

- Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) - Routers share data with each other via this protocol, which lets trhem to
learn about the most optimal paths to forward traffic;
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The Physical Layer
-------------------
* Main focus is moving ones and zeros from one end of the link to the next;
- It consists of devices and means of transmitting bits across the computer networks;
* Bit - The smallest representation of data that a computer can understand; it's a one or zero;

Introduction
- Ones and Zeros are sent across the network through a process called modulation;
* Modulation - It is a way of varying the voltage of the charges moving across the cable;
* Line coding - Modulations used for computer networks - enable devices and both ends of
the network to realize the sata of data as a ) or a 1;
- Line coding is the modulation of an electrical charge so that each side of a connection knows
​Networking
what is a one and what is a zero.
------------

Protocol - A defined set of standards that

computers must follow in order to
communicate properly;
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
computers communicate with each other;

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Twisted Pair Cabling and Duplexing
-----------------------------------
- Twisted Pairs -> Copper wires twised that behave as a conduit of information preventing
electromagnetic interference and crosstalk from neighbouring pairs;
- Standard cat six cable -> 8 wires, 4 twisted pairs inside a single jacket, based on the
transmission technology used the respective no of pairs are used;

Introduction
- In modern form of networking the cables enable duplex communiaction;
* Duplex Communication - The concept that information can flow in both directions across the
cable;
* Simplex Communication - This process is unidirectional;
- Networking cables ensures duplex communication is possible is by reserving one or two
​Networking
pairs for communicating in one direction and the other one or two pairs for communicating in
the other direction
------------ - Simulatenous communication is possible - full duplex;
* Half duplex - while full duplex communication is possible it is possible for only one device;
Protocol - A defined set of standards that
- Full duplexcomputers
allows communications in two
must follow in order to directions at the same time; half duplex means
that only one side can communicate
communicate properly; at a time.
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
computers communicate with each other;

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Network Ports and Patch Panels
-------------------------------
* The ends of the twisted pair are attached to plugs. A common plug is the RJ45 port
(Registered Jack 45).
- A network cable with RJ-45 plug can connect to an RJ-45 network port.
* Network ports are generally directly attached to the devices that make up a computer

Introduction
network;
- Switched will have many network ports because their purpose is to connect to many
devices;
- Servers and desktops usually have only one or two network ports;
- Laptops, Servers, tablets or phones probably do not have any network ports; (Wireless
networking); ​Networking
- Most network ports have two small LEDs - Link LED and the other Activity LED;
------------
-> Link Light - lit when a cable is properly connected to two devices that are both powered
on. Protocol - A defined set of standards that
-> Activitycomputers
Light - will flash
must when
follow data to
in order is actively transmitted across the cable; (Traffic or
not); communicate properly;
- Switches -Computer
sometimes the same
Networking LED
- Full is used
scope for both link and activity status - additionally
of how
could indicate - link speed;
computers communicate with each other;

* Patch panel - It is a device containing many network ports; It's just a container for the
endpoints of many runs of cable;
- Additional cables are run from a patch panel to switches or routers to provide network
access to the computers at the11other end of those links.
* Ethernet and MAC Addresses
------------------------------
-> Ethernet - The protocol most widely used to send data scross individual networks;
-> Ethernet and the data link layer allow software at the higher level stack to send and receive data;
-> Ethernet solved the problem with collison domain by - carrier sense multiple access with collision
domain - CSMA/CD;
-> CSMA/CD - Used to determine when the coomunication is clear and when a device is free to transmit
data;
Introduction
- If there is no data being transmitted on the network segment, a node will feel free to send the data;
- If two or more computers end up trying to send data at the same time the computers detect the
collision and stop sending the data;
- Each device involved with the collision then waits a random interval of time before trying to send data
again; ​Networking
- This random interval prevents the data from computers from colliding again;
------------
* MAC address (Media Access Controll Address)
Protocol - A defined set of standards that
--------------------------------------------------
* A globaly computers
unique identifier attached
must follow to anto
in order individual network interface;
- It is a 48-bit number normally
communicate represented by six grouping of two hexadecimal numbers;
properly;
* Hexadecimal - a way to represent numbers using 16 digits;
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
* Octet - In computer networking, any number that can be represented by 8 bits;
-> A MAC addresscomputers communicate
is split into two -> with
OUI (each other;
Organizationally Unique Identifier)
-> Ethernet uses MAC addresses to ensure that data it sends has both an address for the machine that
sebt the transmission as well as the one the transmission was intended for;

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 * Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast
-----------------------------------
-> Unicast - unicast transmission is meant for one receiving address;
- Identification - If the least significant bit in the first octete of a destination address is set
to zero, it means that ethernet frame is intended for only the destination address.

Introduction
-> Multicast -
Identification - If the least significant bit in the first octete of a destination address is set
to one, it means that ethernet frame is a multicast frame.
-> Broadcast - intended for all receivers on the LAN. It uses a broadcast address and
constitues of all F's. FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF;
​ etworking
N
* Dissecting an Ethernet Frame
------------
-------------------------------
-> Data packetProtocol- An
- A all-encompassing termthat
defined set of standards that represents any single set of binary data
being sent across
computers a network link;
must follow in order to
-> Data packets at theproperly;
communicate Ethernet level are known as Ethernet frames;
-> Ethernet Frame -Networking
Computer A highly structured
- Full scope collection
of how of information presented in a specific
order; computers communicate with each other;

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* Ethernet Frame
-----------------
Preamble - 8 bytes
Destination Address - 6 bytes
Source Address - 6 bytes
Tag - 4 bytes

Introduction
Ether-type - 2 bytes
Payload - 0 - 1500 bytes
FCS - 4 bytes

​ etworking
N
------------

Protocol - A defined set of standards that

computers must follow in order to
communicate properly;
Computer Networking - Full scope of how
computers communicate with each other;

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 1. Preamble - 8 bytes long, can be split into 2 sections; - first 7 byes - series on 1's and 0's
- act as a buffer between frames
- used by network interfaces to synchronize internal clocks they use regulate the speed
at which data is sent;
- last byte -> SFD - Start Frame Delimiter - Signals to a receiving device that the preamble
is over and that the actual frame contents will follow;

Introduction
2. Destination MAC Adress - The hardware address of the intended recipient; (48 bits / 6
bytes)
3. Source MAC Address - The hardware address of the source;
4. EtherType - 16 bits / 2 bytes long and used to describe the protocol of the contents of the
frame; ​Networking
5. Tag/VLAN Tag/ VLAN Header - 4 bytes - Indicates a VLAN frame - VLAN - Virtual LAN - A
------------
technique that enables multiple logical LANs operating on the same physical equipment;
VLANs are used
Protocolto -segregate different
A defined set formsthat
of standards of traffic;
6. Payload - It is themust
computers actual data
follow beingtotransported excluding the header; - contains data
in order
from highercommunicate
network layers - IP, transport;
properly;
7. FCS - Frame
Computer Check Sequence
Networking - 4scope
- Full bytes
of -how
checksum value for the entire frame - it is
calculated by performing
computers what is known
communicate with eachasother;
a cyclical redundancy check against the frame;

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Thank you