Chapter 7
Analyzing Arguments
Objectives:
- To see the logical structures of short
arguments
- To add clarity to long and confusing
arguments
Part 1
Diagramming Short
Arguments
Arguments – Review
Arguments consist of premises and
conclusions.
Premises and conclusions are
statements.
Arguments – Review
Premise indicator words:
since, because, for, given that, seeing that, considering that, inasmuch
as, as, in view of the fact that, as indicated by, judging from, on account
of
Conclusion indicator words:
therefore, thus, hence, consequently, so, accordingly, it follows that, for
this reason, that is why, which shows that, wherefore, this implies that,
as a result, this suggests that, this being so, we may infer that, etc.
Diagramming Short Arguments
Argument:
The death penalty should be abolished
because it’s racially discriminatory, there’s no
evidence that it’s more effective than life
imprisonment, and innocent people may be
executed by mistake.
Diagramming Short Arguments
Step 1: Identify (circle, underline, etc.) all
premise and / or conclusion indicators.
The death penalty should be abolished
because it’s racially discriminatory, there’s no
evidence that it’s more effective than life
imprisonment, and innocent people may be
executed by mistake.
Diagramming Short
Arguments
Step 2: Number the statements consecutively
as they appear in the argument.
1. The death penalty should be abolished
2. because it’s racially discriminatory,
3. there’s no evidence that it’s more effective than
life imprisonment, and
4. innocent people may be executed by mistake.
Diagramming Short
Arguments
Step 3: Arrange the numbers on a page
with the premises placed above the
conclusion(s) they claim to support.
2) 3) 4)
1)
Diagramming Short
Arguments
Step 4: Omit any logically irrelevant statements.
Step 5: Use arrows to mean ‘is offered as evidence
for’ to show the relationship of argument support.
2) 3) 4)
1)
2), 3), and 4) offer independent support for the
conclusion.
Independent vs. Linked Support
■Example 1
1) Nick doesn’t own a car.
2)He has poor vision.
3) He lives near the stadium.
4) So, Nick probably won’t drive a car to the game.
■ Example 2
1) No student skipping Chapter 7 can do well on the
writing test.
2) Henry skipped Chapter 7.
3) So, Henry couldn’t do well on the writing test.
Diagramming Short Arguments
Independent support: does not weaken or destroy any
other premise but offers less support for the
conclusion
1) 2) 3)
4)
Linked support: works cooperatively with another
premise to support the conclusion
1) + 3)
Linked or Independent Support?
1. Tom is probably a BT student (1). I saw him in the
Biotech lab yesterday (2). Last week he was reading
a textbook of Chemistry in the library (3). He often
discusses topics of life science (4).
Independent
support
2. Amy is a marathon runner (1). She is probably very
fit (2), given that if a person runs marathons, then
he/she is probably very fit (3).
Linked support
Other Kinds of Support
1) Jim is an elderly man.
2) So, Jim probably doesn’t like hip-hop music.
3) So, Jim probably won’t be going to the underground
music showcase tonight.
1)
2)
3)
Other Kinds of Support
Example
Most IU students are BA majors, and An is an IU student. Thus, An is probably a
BA major. Therefore, An probably supports the contest for potential business
leaders, because most BA majors support the contest for potential business
leaders.
1) Most IU students are BA majors
2) An is an IU student
3) An is probably a BA major
4) An probably supports the contest for potential business leaders
5) most BA majors support the contest for potential business leaders
Other Kinds of Support
Example
Most IU students are BA majors, and An is an IU student. Thus, An is probably a
BA major. Therefore, An probably supports the contest for potential business
leaders, because most BA majors support the contest for potential business
leaders.
1) Most IU students are BA majors
2) An is an IU student
3) An is probably a BA major
4) An probably supports the contest for
potential business leaders
5) most BA majors support the contest for
potential business leaders
Other Kinds of Support
Example
Most IU students are BA majors, and An is an IU student. Thus, An is probably a
BA major. Therefore, An probably supports the contest for potential business
leaders, because most BA majors support the contest for potential business
leaders.
1) Most IU students are BA majors
2) An is an IU student
3) An is probably a BA major
4) An probably supports the contest for
potential business leaders
5) most BA majors support the contest for
potential business leaders
Other Kinds of Support
Cheating is wrong. First, it will lower your self-respect, because you can never be proud
of anything you got by cheating. Second, cheating is a lie because it deceives other
people into thinking you know more than you do. Third, cheating violates the teacher’s
trust that you will do your own work. Fourth, cheating is unfair to all the people who
aren’t cheating. Finally, if you cheat in school now, you’ll find it easier to cheat in other
situations later in life – perhaps even in your closest personal relationships.
1) cheating is wrong
2) it will lower your self-respect
3) because you can never be proud of anything you got by cheating
4) cheating is a lie
5) because it deceives other people into thinking you know more than you do
6) cheating violates the teacher’s trust that you will do your own work
7) cheating is unfair to all the people who aren’t cheating
8) if you cheat in school now, you’ll find it easier to cheat in other situations
later in life – perhaps even in your closest personal relationships
Other Kinds of Support
1) cheating is wrong
2) it will lower your self-respect
3) because you can never be proud of anything you got by cheating
4) cheating is a lie
5) because it deceives other people into thinking you know more than you do
6) cheating violates the teacher’s trust that you will do your own work
7) cheating is unfair to all the people who aren’t cheating
8) if you cheat in school now, you’ll find it easier to cheat in other situations
later in life – perhaps even in your closest personal relationships
Other Kinds of Support
1) cheating is wrong
2) it will lower your self-respect
3) because you can never be proud of anything you got by cheating
4) cheating is a lie
5) because it deceives other people into thinking you know more than you do
6) cheating violates the teacher’s trust that you will do your own work
7) cheating is unfair to all the people who aren’t cheating
8) if you cheat in school now, you’ll find it easier to cheat in other situations
later in life – perhaps even in your closest personal relationships
Tips on Diagramming Short Arguments
1. Pay close attention to premise and conclusion
indicators.
2. Find the main conclusion and analyze it carefully.
3. Number the statements and/or expressions of cause-
effect.
Note: Compound and complex sentences contain two or more separate
statements.
4. Treat conditional statements (if-then) and disjunctive
statements (either-or) as single statements.
5. Don’t diagram irrelevant statements.
6. Don’t diagram redundant statements.
Diagram the argument
Two teenagers saw the movie, "Natural Born Killers," so they went out on a serial
killing. A number of teenagers have committed violence at schools as a result of
their many hours’ playing video games filled with murder and violence. We must
have some stricter controls on the content of entertainment viewed by teenagers.
(1)two teenagers saw the movie, "Natural
Born Killers"
(2) so they went out on a serial killing
(3) a number of teenagers have committed
violence at schools
(4) as a result of their many hours’ playing
video games filled with murder and
violence
(5) we must have some stricter controls on
the content of entertainment viewed by
Diagram the argument
Two teenagers saw the movie, "Natural Born Killers," so they went out on a serial
killing. A number of teenagers have committed violence at schools as a result of
their many hours’ playing video games filled with murder and violence. We must
have some stricter controls on the content of entertainment viewed by teenagers.
(1)two teenagers saw the movie, "Natural
Born Killers"
(2) so they went out on a serial killing
(3) a number of teenagers have committed
violence at schools
(4) as a result of their many hours’ playing
video games filled with murder and
violence
(5) we must have some stricter controls on
the content of entertainment viewed by
Diagram the argument
We cannot ignore the disastrous effects of TV on children. It appears to shorten the
attention span of the young. It also seems to erode their linguistic powers and ability
to handle mathematical symbolism. Television also changes their character in a
negative way because violent programs increasingly make them impatient and cruel.
More seriously, television opens all of society's secrets and taboos, thus it erases the
dividing line between childhood and adulthood.
(1) We cannot ignore the disastrous effects of TV on children.
(2) It appears to shorten the attention span of the young.
(3) It also seems to erode their linguistic powers and ability to handle mathematical
symbolism.
(4) Television also changes their character in a negative way
(5) Violent programs increasingly make them impatient and cruel.
(6) More seriously, television opens all of society's secrets and taboos.
(7) It erases the dividing line between childhood and adulthood.
Diagram the argument
We cannot ignore disastrous effects of TV on children. It appears to shorten the
attention span of the young. It also seems to erode their linguistic powers and ability
to handle mathematical symbolism. Television also changes their character in a
negative way because violent programs increasingly make them impatient and cruel.
More seriously, television opens all of society's secrets and taboos, thus it erases the
dividing line between childhood and adulthood.
(1) We cannot ignore disastrous effects of TV on children.
(2) It appears to shorten the attention span of the young.
(3) It also seems to erode their linguistic powers and ability to handle mathematical
symbolism.
(4) Television also changes their character in a negative way
(5) Violent programs increasingly make them impatient and cruel.
(6) More seriously, television opens all of society's secrets and taboos.
(7) It erases the dividing line between childhood and adulthood.
Task: Number the statements, clarify the references and diagram the
following argument:
President Donald Trump on the election result (November 8, 2020)
“Beginning Monday, our campaign will start prosecuting our case in court to
ensure election laws are fully upheld and the rightful winner is seated. The
American People are entitled to an honest election: counting all legal ballots,
and not counting any illegal ballots. This is the only way to ensure the public has
full confidence in our election. It remains shocking that the Biden campaign
refuses to agree with this basic principle and wants ballots counted even if they
are fraudulent, manufactured, or cast by ineligible or deceased voters. Only a
party engaged in wrongdoing would unlawfully keep observers out of the count
room and then fight in court to block their access.”
https://apnews.com/article/transcript-statement-donald-trump-
Task: Number the statements, clarify the references and diagram the
following argument:
President Donald Trump on the election result (November 8, 2020)
1. Beginning Monday, our campaign will start prosecuting our case in court to ensure election laws are fully
upheld and the rightful winner is seated.
2. The American People are entitled to an honest election: counting all legal ballots, and not counting any
illegal ballots.
3. (This is the only way to ensure the public has full confidence in our election).
4. The Biden campaign refuses to agree with this basic principle.
5. (The Biden campaign) wants ballots counted even if they are fraudulent, manufactured, or cast by
ineligible or deceased voters.
6. Only a party (Biden’s Democratic Party) engaged in wrongdoing would unlawfully keep observers out of
the count room and then fight in court to block their access.
5 6
2 + 4
1
Task: Number the statements, and diagram CHATGPT’s argument:
Part 2
Summarizing extended arguments
What does an extended argument look
like?
Professor Jack W. Meiland, offering advice to college students:
There is one question which you should not ask, nor
feel any temptation to ask, your instructor. That
question is: “Will this be on the exam?” This question
infuriates many instructors, and rightly so. For this
question indicates that your main interest is in
getting through the course with a good grade rather
than in learning what the instructor has to teach. It is
insulting to the teacher who has worked hard to put
you in a position to appreciate the material - its
Argument standardization
Purpose: to provide a summary of the argument that
accurately restates the main points.
Argument standardization = a method for
summarizing extended arguments.
Two important skills of argument analysis:
1. Paraphrasing
2. Finding missing premises and conclusions
Characteristics of a good paraphrase
accura clear
te
concis charita
e ble
Skill 1. Paraphrasing
1. Be accurate: don’t misrepresent (like straw
man)
Example: Europe has a set of primary interests, which to us
have no, or a very remote relation to ours.
(1). Europe’s vital interests are totally different than ours.
(2). Europe has a set of vital interests which are of little
or no concern to us.
Comment: (1) changes the original meaning; (2) is an
accurate paraphrase.
Skill 1. Paraphrasing (cont)
2. Be clear: Take confusion way and make it
understandable.
Skill 1. Paraphrasing (cont)
3. Be concise: get to the bare essentials
Example: The office wasn’t open at that point
in time, owing to the fact that there was no
electrical power in the building.
Paraphrase: The office was closed then
because there was no electricity in the
building.
Skill 1. Paraphrasing (cont)
4. Be charitable: Again, avoid straw man
Example: Cigarette smoking causes lung cancer.
Therefore, if you continue to smoke, you are
endangering your health.
1. Cigarette smoking guarantees that you will get lung
cancer. Continue to smoke and you will be unhealthy.
2. Cigarette smoking is a positive causal factor that
increases the risk of lung cancer. If you continue to
smoke, you risk being unhealthy.
Comment: (1) changes the original meaning by making the
Task: Choose the best paraphrase
Black Friday does not really offer discounted deals because many
suppliers set extremely high prices and then “discount” them.
Which of the following is a good paraphrase?
A. Black Friday does not attract a large number of buyers because its
prices are too high at the beginning.
B. Customers are not really interested in online sales on Black Friday
because it sets cutting prices.
C. Due to many of its much higher initial prices, Black Friday is not a
sales promotion indeed.
D. Many customers do not care about Black Friday because they put
quality before prices.
Skill 2. Finding missing premises and
conclusions
People often leave premises or conclusions out of their
arguments.
Identifying missing premises: If there isn’t enough
support for the conclusion, determine what is needed to
support the conclusion and insert it.
Example: ‘You’re under 21. Therefore, I can’t sell you
beer.’
Missing major premise: ‘It is illegal to sell beer to
those under 21.’
Or: ‘By law, I can’t sell beer to anyone under 21.’
Task: Find the missing (major/minor) premises or conclusion and insert them
to make good arguments (deductively sound or inductively cogent)
a. I must register my course schedule for next Semester 1. I’m a fresher.
Missing major premise: According to IU policy, all freshers register their
schedule for next Semester 1 when they reach their 2nd year.
b. IU has various clubs which develop soft skills. Soft skills are increasingly
required by employers.
Missing conclusion: So, high chances are that most IUers join one of these
clubs.
c. You can’t skip Quiz 3. It is indicated in the syllabus that students take at
least three quizzes to be qualified for the final exam.
Missing minor premise: You just took Quiz 1 and Quiz 2.
Summarizing extended arguments: what to
do?
1. Read carefully to identify the main
conclusion (or if it is missing).
2. Omit unnecessary/irrelevant statement.
3. Number the steps; put the conclusion first
or last.
4. Fill in any missing premises or conclusions.
Summarizing extended arguments: What to avoid
1. Don’t write incomplete sentences
Error:
Because animals can experience pain and suffering.
Therefore, it’s wrong to kill or mistreat animals.
Correct:
Animals can experience pain and suffering. Therefore,
it’s wrong to kill or mistreat animals.
“I choose a lazy person to do a hard job. Because a lazy person
will find an easy way to do it.” Bill Gates
“I choose a lazy person to do a hard job. This is because a lazy
person will find an easy way to do it.” Bill Gates
Summarizing extended arguments: What to avoid
2. Don’t include more than one statement per line.
Error:
The CEO should resign since he no longer gains the
confidence of the share holders.
Correct:
1. The CEO no longer gains the confidence of the
share holders.
2. Therefore, the CEO should resign.
Summarizing extended arguments: What to avoid
3. Don’t include non-statements.
Error:
1. Trump and Biden are both American presidents, unlike
me a Vietnamese.
2. So why should I care about American politics?
Correct:
3. Trump and Biden are both American presidents, but I’m a
Vietnamese.
4. So I have no reason to care about American politics.
Summarizing extended arguments: What to avoid
4. Don’t include anything that is not a premise or a conclusion.
Error:
1. Critical thinking is both a professional and life skill.
2. All non-political courses at IU are taught in English.”
3. Critical Thinking is a non-political course.
4. Therefore, Critical Thinking is taught in English at IU.
(from 2,3)
Tip: (1) doesn’t support the conclusion, so leave it out of the
standardized argument.
Practice: Standardize this argument
Professor Jack W. Meiland, offering advice to college students:
There is one question which you should not ask, nor feel any
temptation to ask, your instructor. That question is: “Will this be
on the exam?” This question infuriates many instructors, and
rightly so. For this question indicates that your main interest is
in getting through the course with a good grade rather than in
learning what the instructor has to teach. It is insulting to the
teacher who has worked hard to put you in a position to
appreciate the material - its intrinsic interest, its subtlety, its
complexity.
Standardized argument 1
Professor Jack W. Meiland, offering advice to college students:
(1)You should not ask your instructor about the exam contents. First,
(2)your question indicates that you’re more interested in a good grade
rather than in learning, so (3)it makes your instructor angry. Second,
(4)this question is insulting to your instructor because (5)he/she has made
great efforts to inspire you with the lesson.
2 5
3 4
1
Standardized argument 2
Professor Jack W. Meiland, offering advice to college students:
(1) Your question about the exam contents indicates that you’re more
interested in a good grade rather than in learning, so (2)it makes your
instructor angry. (3)This question is also insulting to your instructor because
(4)he/she has made great efforts to inspire you with the lesson. (5)For those
reasons, you should not ask your instructor about the exam contents.
Practice: Standardize this argument
My opinion regarding the amount of homework a child receives is
basically threefold. I don’t believe the children should receive any
homework whatsoever. One, because the teacher has seven or
eight hours during the course of the school day to instruct children
and do assignments with them, to review material for tests. They
do not need to be sending work home. To me, homework is an
excuse for a teacher’s lack of ability to do their job properly. Two,
there are too many children that come home with either no adult
there or no adult with the ability to help them with their
homework. That places too many children at a disadvantage
compared to other children who have their parents there to help
them with their homework. Three, an adult spends eight hours at
work, comes home, and has the rest of the day to enjoy
themselves. That is a luxury that a child should definitely be
afforded. They don’t need to spend time after school. Teacher, it is
time to wake up.
Standardized argument
Children should not be given any homework for three
reasons. First, they work enough with their teachers
in class for eight hours, so no more assignments or
review materials are needed at home. Second,
homework is an obstacle for too many children who
have no adult relatives to help or unable to help.
Third, like adults, children need a rest after 8 hours
at school.
Assignment
Do the FIVE tasks in the next slides.
Link to submit:
https://forms.gle/J8p6TF8H1suvFwak9
Note: Delete lesson slides; only keep the assignment slides.
Task 1: Number the statements and diagram the argument
Online dating is becoming more and more popular
nowadays. It is convenient because customers can save
time by browsing through others’ profiles to get a truthful
assessment of an individual. Video dates and virtual dates
also add to the convenience of online dating. Online dating
sites are very secure because they make use of features
such as screen names and internal email, and these
features can ensure customers’ confidentiality. This model
of cyberspace dating is very effective as it brings high
marriage rates to customers. To illustrate, eHarmony.com
has matched up to 50,000 couples successfully.
Task 2: Number the statements and diagram the argument
Computer games separate young players, including children, from society.
These players, hence, cannot learn the important lessons that require social
interaction. In addition, these games only focus on patterns. That is why
children do not develop their mental skills well if they are addicted to
computer games. Unlike traditional games which teach children how to work
in a team or how to solve problems, computer games give children no
preparation for their future work or life. If you are parents, remove or block
games on the computers that your children use. All in all, computer games
influence young people negatively.
Task 3: Number the statements and diagram the argument
To many IUers, the summer semester is not really discouraging. This
semester is also called the third semester at college. A large number of
first-year IUers have to spend one or two semesters on classes of
intensive English, so the summer semester helps them shorten their
college time. This 3rd semester is half length of the regular semesters,
so IU lecturers plan more focused lesson contents. The mid-term exam
at IU is also combined with class time; therefore, its test contents are
more or less adapted. Nevertheless, the summer semester takes away
the fun moments which most IUers look forward to.
Task 4: Indicate the premises and the conclusion, then summarize the argument.
Television can play an important role in educating children, but its
overwhelming influences are really worrying. Television is an essential
device in nearly all household. Television has been increasingly replacing
the traditional roles of families and schools, so children’s attitudes and
behavior have been changed as a result. Advertisements of processed
foods and drinks are so frequent on TV, which causes children to consume
more and more unhealthy foods. TV commercials need to be limited.
Children may watch violent scenes on TV and they become more and
more aggressive. This is because parental attention is not always
available.
Task 5: Standardize this argument and diagram it
When we join public pages or groups of the same interests on
social media, we can learn from other members’ contributions
and thus, we can have more knowledge or skills what may take
us a lot more time to acquire if we do the other ways like
joining schools or face-to-face study groups. Social media can
be such a fun and entertaining way to communicate, catch up,
and keep in touch with family and friends who are far away.
The means of interactive communication allows users to call,
by voice and on video, or text, or chat, or comment and reply
to comments on their posts. Then on the other spectrum, it is
very important to know that social media can be a dangerous
place as well. We hear lots of stories about online predators,
catfishing and other stories like that. It is important to know
the dangers of social media and be wary of them. More, it can
be such a political, religious, gossip column that leads so many
to take others' views, comments and opinions out of context
that it becomes an almost evil entity. Not to mention that I feel
certain subjects and info shouldn't be shared if it isn't their
business to do so such as suicide news or notes, along with
Task 5: Standardize this argument and diagram it
Standardized argument:
Numbered statements:
Diagramming:
Task 6: Cite a real-life argument, standardize it with numbered statements, and diagram it
Argument
Numbered statements:
Diagramming:
Source:
Week 10 – Attendance
Project Preparation
Assignment: Each group is required to select an input
video of + 3 minutes (in English or Vietnamese) about
a controversial topic or with controversial contents.
Preferences are given to most popular or recent clips.
Specific tasks will be given next week.
THANK YOU
