2 Vector Spaces

• Vector spaces :
Let V be a set on which two operations (vector addition and
scalar multiplication) are defined. If the following ten axioms
are satisfied for every u, v, and w in V and every scalar (real
number) c and d, then V is called a vector space

Addition:
(1) u+v is in V
(2) u+v=v+u
(3) u+(v+w)=(u+v)+w
(4) V has a zero vector 0 such that for every u in V, u+0=u
(5) For every u in V, there is a vector in V denoted by –u
such that u+(–u)=0
 Scalar multiplication:
(6) cu is in V
(7) c(u  v ) cu  cv
(8) (c  d )u cu  du
(9) c(du) (cd )u
(10) 1(u) u

※ Any set V that satisfies these ten properties (or axioms) is called a vector
space, and the objects in the set are called vectors
n
※ Thus, we can conclude that R is of course a vector space
• Four examples of vector spaces are introduced as follows. (It is straightforward to
show that these vector spaces satisfy the above ten axioms)

(1) n-tuple space: Rn

(u1 , u2 , un )  (v1 , v2 , v2 ) (u1  v1 , u2  v2 , un  vn ) (standard vector addition)
k (u1 , u2 , un ) (ku1 , ku2 , kun ) (standard scalar multiplication for vectors)

(2) Matrix space : V M mn

(the set of all m×n matrices with real-number entries)
Ex: (m = n = 2)
 u11 u12   v11 v12   u11  v11 u12  v12 
 u u    v v   u  v u  v  (standard matrix addition)
 21 22   21 22   21 21 22 22 
 u11 u12   ku11 ku12 
k    (standard scalar multiplication for matrices)
u u
 21 22   21 ku ku 22 
(3) n-th degree or less polynomial space : V Pn
(the set of all real polynomials of degree n or less)
p ( x)  q ( x) (a0  b0 )  (a1  b1 ) x    (an  bn ) x n
kp ( x) ka0  ka1 x    kan x n
※ By the fact that the set of real numbers is closed under addition and
multiplication, it is straightforward to show that Pn satisfies the ten
axioms and thus is a vector space
(4) Continuous function space : V C ( , )
(the set of all real-valued continuous functions defined on the
entire real line)
( f  g )( x)  f ( x)  g ( x)
(kf )( x) kf ( x)
※ By the fact that the sum of two continuous function is continuous
and the product of a scalar and a continuous function is still a
continuous function, C ( , ) is a vector space
  Summary of important vector spaces
R set of all real numbers
R 2 set of all ordered pairs
R 3 set of all ordered triples
R n set of all n-tuples
C ( , ) set of all continuous functions defined on the real number line
C[a, b] set of all continuous functions defined on a closed interval [a, b]
P set of all polynomials
Pn set of all polynomials of degree n
M m ,n set of m n matrices
M n ,n set of n n square matrices
※ Each element in a vector space is called a vector, so a vector can be a real
number, an n-tuple, a matrix, a polynomial, a continuous function, etc.
 Theorem 2: Properties of scalar multiplication
Let v be any element of a vector space V, and let c be any
scalar. Then the following properties are true
(1) 0 v 0
(2) c0 0
(3) If cv 0, either c 0 or v 0
(4) (  1) v  v (the additive inverse of v equals ((–1)v)
• Notes: To show that a set is not a vector space, you need
only find one axiom that is not satisfied


Ex 1: The set of all integers is not a vector space
Pf: 1  V , and 12 is a real-number scalar
( 12 )(1)  12  V(it is not closed under scalar multiplication)
  noninteger
scalar

integer


Ex 2: The set of all (exact) second-degree polynomial functions is
not a vector space
2 2
Pf: Let p ( x)  x and q ( x)  x  x  1
 p( x)  q( x) x  1 V
(it is not closed under vector addition)
• Ex 3:
V=R2=the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers
vector addition: (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 ) (u1  v1 , u2  v2 )
scalar multiplication: c(u1 , u2 ) (cu1 ,0) (nonstandard definition)
Verify V is not a vector space
Sol:
This kind of setting can satisfy the first nine axioms of the
definition of a vector space (you can try to show that), but it
violates the tenth axiom
 1(1, 1) (1, 0) (1, 1)
 the set (together with the two given operations) is
not a vector space
 3 Subspaces of Vector Spaces
• Subspace :
(V , , ) : a vector space
W  
 : a nonempty subset
W V 
(W , , ) : The nonempty subset W is called a subspace if W is
a vector space under the operations of addition and
scalar multiplication defined in V
 Trivial subspace :
Every vector space V has at least two subspaces
(1) Zero vector space {0} is a subspace of V (It satisfies the ten
axioms)
(2) V is a subspace of V

※ Any subspaces other than these two are call proper (or nontrivial) subspaces

Examination of whether W being a subspace
– Since the operations defined on W are the same as those

defined on V, and most of the ten axioms are inherited

from the properties for operations, it is not needed to
verify these axioms
– Therefore, the following theorem tells us it is sufficient to

test for the closure conditions under vector addition and

scalar multiplication to identify that a nonempty subset of
a vector space is a subspace
• Theorem 3: Test whether a nonempty subset being a subspace

If W is a nonempty subset of a vector space V, then W is

a subspace of V if and only if the following conditions hold
(1) If u and v are in W, then u+v is in W
(2) If u is in W and c is any scalar, then cu is in W
Pf:
1. Note that if u, v, and w are in W, then they are also in V.
Furthermore, W and V share the same operations.
Consequently, vector space axioms 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are
satisfied automatically
2. If the closure conditions hold in Theorem 3, vector space
axioms 1 and 6 are satisfied as well
3. Since the axiom 6 is satisfied (i.e., cu is in W if u is in W),
we can obtain
3.1. for scalar c 0, cu 0  W   zero vector in W
 Satisfy axiom 4
3.2. for scalar c  1, (  1)u  W    u (  1)u
st. u+(  u) u+(  1)u 0
 Satisfy axiom 5
 Ex 2: A subspace of M2×2
Let W be the set of all 2×2 symmetric matrices. Show that
W is a subspace of the vector space M2×2, with the standard

operations of matrix addition and scalar multiplication

Sol:
First, we knon that W , the set of all 2 2 symmetric matrices,
is an nonempty subset of the vector space M 22
Second,
A1  W, A2  W  ( A1  A2 )T  A1T  A2T  A1  A2 ( A1  A 2  W )
c  R, A  W  (cA)T cAT cA (c A  W )
The definition of a symmetric matrix A is that AT = A
W is a subspace of M 22

Ex 3: The set of singular matrices is not a subspace of M2×2
Let W be the set of singular (noninvertible) matrices of
order 2. Show that W is not a subspace of M2×2 with the
standard matrix operations
Sol:
 1 0  0 0
A    W , B   W
 0 0  0 1

 1 0
 A  B   W (W is not closed under vector addition)
 0 1
W2 is not a subspace of M 22
 2
Ex 4: The set of first-quadrant vectors is not a subspace of R
Show that W {( x1 , x2 ) : x1 0 and x2 0}, with the standard
2
operations, is not a subspace of R
Sol:
Let u (1, 1)  W
  1u  11, 1  1,  1 W
(W is not closed under scalar multiplication)

W is not a subspace of R 2
 Ex 5: Identify subspaces of R2
2
Which of the following two subsets is a subspace of R ?
(a) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=0
(b) The set of points on the line given by x+2y=1
Sol:
(a) W ( x, y ) x  2 y 0 ( 2t , t ) t  R
(Note: the zero vector
(0,0) is on this line)

Let v1  2t1 , t1  W and v 2  2t2 , t 2  W

 v1  v 2  2 t1  t2 , t1  t 2   W (closed under vector addition)

cv1  2 ct1 , ct1  W (closed under scalar multiplication)

W is a subspace of R 2
(b) W x, y  x  2 y 1 (Note: the zero vector (0, 0) is not on this line)

Consider v (1, 0)  W
  1 v  1, 0   W W is not a subspace of R
2
 Ex 8: Identify subspaces of R3
Which of the following subsets is a subspace of R 3?
(a) W ( x1 , x2 ,1) x1 , x2  R (Note: the zero vector is not in W)
(b) W ( x1 , x1  x3 , x3 ) x1 , x3  R (Note: the zero vector is in W)
Sol:
(a)

Consider v (0, 0,1)  W

 ( 1) v (0, 0,  1)  W
W is not a subspace of R 3
(b)

Consider v (v1 , v1  v3 , v3 )  W and u (u1, u1  u3 , u3 )  W

 v  u v1  u1 , v1  u1   v3  u 3 , v3  u3  W

cv cv1 , cv1   cv3 , cv3  W

W is closed under addition and scalar multiplication,

so W is a subspace of R 3
 Theorem 4: The intersection of two subspaces is a subspace
If V and W are both subspaces of a vector space U ,
then the intersection of V and W (denoted by V  W )
is also a subspace of U
Pf:
(1) For v1 and v 2 in V  W , since v1 and v 2 are in V (and W ),
v1  v 2 is in V (and W ). Therefore, v1  v 2 is in V  W
(2) For v1 in V  W , since v1 is in V (and W ),
cv1 is in V (and W ). Therefore, cv1 is in V W

Consequently, we can conclude the intersection of V and W

(V  W ) is also a subspace of U
※ However, the union of two subspaces is not a subspace