Vehicular Adhoc

Networks (VANET)
 Introduction to Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks
(VANETs)
• Definition: Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are a form of mobile ad hoc
networks (MANETs) where vehicles act as nodes in the network to create a mobile
network infrastructure.

• Purpose: VANETs are primarily used for communication among vehicles and
between vehicles and roadside infrastructure to improve road safety, traffic
efficiency, and provide various vehicular services.

• Key Features: Real-time communication, dynamic network topology, self-

organization, and decentralized control.
 Traffic Monitoring in VANETs

• Importance: Traffic monitoring in VANETs is crucial for understanding

traffic patterns, identifying congestion, and improving traffic management
strategies.

• Causes of Congestion: Factors such as accidents, road construction, traffic

incidents, and bottlenecks contribute to congestion in road networks.

• Traffic Monitoring Data: VANETs collect data on vehicle speed, density,

flow, and other relevant parameters to analyze traffic conditions.
Common Applications of Traffic Data

• Traffic Management: Optimizing traffic signal timings, rerouting

vehicles, and managing congestion.

• Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS): Providing real-time traffic

information to drivers, enhancing navigation systems, and improving
road safety.

• Urban Planning: Analyzing traffic patterns to design better road

infrastructure and transportation systems.
 Sensor Technology in VANETs

• Commonly Used Sensors: GPS receivers, accelerometers,

gyroscopes, cameras, LiDAR, radar, and vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V)
communication devices.

• Role of Sensors: Sensors capture vehicle dynamics, environmental

conditions, and communication signals to facilitate various VANET
applications.
Detection Methods in VANETs

• Vehicle Detection: Using sensors to detect the presence, speed, and

direction of vehicles in the vicinity.

• Congestion Detection: Analyzing changes in traffic flow, density, and

speed to identify congested areas.

• Incident Detection: Monitoring for accidents, breakdowns, or road

hazards to alert nearby vehicles and authorities.
Models for Traffic Flow and Vehicle Motion

• Longitudinal Vehicle Movement: Using car-following models such

as the Intelligent Driver Model (IDM) or the Gipps' model to simulate
vehicle behavior in traffic.

• Lane Change Situations: Employing lane-changing models like the

MOBIL model or the Lane Change Decision model to predict lane-
changing maneuvers.
Simulating Communication in VANETs

• Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) Communication: Enabling vehicles to

exchange data such as traffic information, warnings, and cooperative
maneuvers to enhance safety and efficiency.

• Infrastructure-to-Vehicle (I2V) Communication: Allowing roadside

infrastructure such as traffic lights, signs, and cameras to communicate
with vehicles to provide traffic guidance and assistance.
Conclusion

• VANETs play a crucial role in improving traffic management, road

safety, and transportation efficiency.

• Understanding traffic flow models and communication protocols is

essential for designing effective VANET systems.

• Continued research and development in VANET technology will lead

to more intelligent and connected transportation systems.
 Traffic Monitoring
Introduction:
• Traffic data is crucial for making important transportation decisions.

• Departments of Transportation (DOTs) have developed programs to collect traffic flow

information.
• Monitoring program goals align with specific objectives of DOTs, influencing the type
and level of data collected.
• Data is used for various purposes such as real-time traveler information, traffic control,
and predicting future traffic conditions.
• Examples of traffic data use include road planning, bridge and pavement design, air
quality analysis, congestion alerting, and traffic signal control.
• Lack of a centralized source for traffic data poses challenges as information is
collected by different governmental entities.
• Data is stored in various databases maintained by different levels of government,
leading to duplication and coordination issues.
• A significant portion of real-time traffic data is not archived, posing challenges for
engineers seeking historical data.
• Understanding existing traffic monitoring methods is essential before discussing
vehicular networks.
• The chapter aims to provide context on current data collection and usage by
transportation agencies.
• It discusses the causes of congestion, common types of data collected, sensors used for
data gathering, and key applications of sensor and traffic data.

• Emerging methods for traffic monitoring and future trends in traffic monitoring are also
examined.
1.1 Causes of Congestion
• The highway system is integral to the daily lives of individuals and businesses,
facilitating the movement of passengers and freight.

• Increasing congestion on the nation's highways negatively affects both travelers' quality
of life and the economic competitiveness of U.S. businesses.
• The Texas Transportation Institute's 2007 Urban Mobility Report highlights the extent of
congestion in major urban areas in the United States.

• In 2005, the report estimated that Americans wasted 4.2 billion hours and 2.9 billion gallons
of gasoline due to congestion.

• This resulted in an economic loss exceeding $78 billion, representing a 70% increase in
congestion costs since 1995.

• The worsening congestion in the United States can be attributed to several underlying reasons.

• Firstly, the increase in travel demand has outpaced the growth in roadway and public
transportation capacities.

• Over the last two decades, vehicle miles of travel have more than doubled, while capacity has
only increased by 30 to 45%.
• This surge in travel is partly fueled by the rise in car ownership, which increased from an
average of 1.2 to 1.9 automobiles per household between 1969 and 2001.

• Factors driving car ownership include the affordability of automobiles and the expansion of
suburban development since World War II.

• Low-density suburban development makes it challenging to operate public transportation

efficiently, leading to situations where automobiles become the primary mode of
transportation for commuting and daily errands.

• Approximately half of all workers now live in suburbs, with fewer residing in central cities
or non-urban areas.

• Consequently, people are traveling more due to higher automobile ownership and longer
commute distances, while transportation infrastructure expansion has failed to keep pace.
• This imbalance results in prolonged peak congested periods, with "rush hour" inaccurately describing the
extended congested periods lasting three hours or more in many urban areas.

• Congestion on roadways can be categorized into two main types:

1. Recurring and

2. Non-recurring congestion.

• Recurring congestion occurs regularly at specific locations on the road network, typically during morning and
afternoon peak periods.

• This type of congestion is caused by a combination of increased traffic volumes exceeding the roadway capacity.

• Mitigating recurring congestion often requires costly projects to expand road capacity or significant shifts in travel
behavior, such as increased use of public transportation or telecommuting.

• Travelers are generally familiar with recurring congestion as they encounter it daily, allowing them to plan their
trips accordingly.
• Nonrecurring congestion arises from unexpected events such as crashes, construction

zones, or severe weather, which reduce the traffic-carrying capacity of a road.

• This type of congestion accounts for a significant portion of delays experienced by

drivers in urban areas, estimated to be between 52 and 58%.

• Unlike recurring congestion, which occurs predictably at specific times and locations,

nonrecurring congestion is unpredictable and can occur anywhere on the roadway

network.

• Nonrecurring congestion poses challenges for drivers in trip planning, as they cannot

anticipate the extent of delays caused by unexpected events like crashes.

• Crashes or other incidents on roadways can have a significant impact on traffic-carrying capacity.

• The Highway Capacity Manual defines the theoretical maximum number of vehicles that can use a
section of highway, known as the road's capacity.

• Under ideal conditions, the maximum capacity for a lane of a freeway is 2400 vehicles per hour (vph).

• Field studies have shown how crashes or lane closures due to incidents can reduce the capacity of a
road.

• Table 1.1 in the Highway Capacity Manual illustrates the impact of incidents on capacity.

• Incidents can cause substantial reductions in traffic flow, even if a crash only affects the shoulder and
does not close a travel lane, due to "rubbernecking" as drivers slow down to look.

• Blocking even one lane can remove more than half of the road's capacity, as merging into a single lane
introduces additional turbulence, further reducing capacity beyond simply closing a lane.
•Since the late 1980s, both state and federal governments have increasingly
recognized the impossibility of building new road capacity quickly enough to combat
rising congestion levels.
•Consequently, there has been a shift towards maximizing the operational efficiency
of existing transportation infrastructure.
• Agencies have redirected their focus towards investing in operational
improvements rather than solely relying on expanding road capacity.

• Operational enhancements include initiatives such as providing real-time traveler

information, implementing incident management programs, and optimizing traffic
signal operations.

• Timely and accurate data on traffic conditions are essential for developing and
executing these operational improvements effectively.

• As a result, many agencies have significantly expanded their traffic monitoring

programs to ensure they have access to the necessary data for improving traffic
operations and management.
 Traffic Monitoring Data
• Traditional traffic monitoring programs are typically focused on collecting four types of data:

1. Traffic volume,
2. Vehicle classification,
3. Traffic speed, and
4. Traffic density.

• Travel time is also being monitored by more and more agencies as it provides a direct
measurement of what travelers may experience.

• This section reviews common types of data that DOTs collect and discusses the characteristics
of each type of data.
1.2.1 Traffic Volume
• Traffic volume is a fundamental concept in traffic engineering, referring to the
number of vehicles passing a specific point on a road within a given timeframe.

• It serves as the most basic data element and is widely available across
transportation networks.

• Volume data is typically aggregated over various time increments, from 20-second
intervals to an entire day, with hourly or daily summaries being most common.

• Real-time operational decisions rely on more granular data.

• Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is a commonly used metric, representing the
average number of vehicles passing a location on a road in a day over a year.

• However, AADT does not capture the full variability in traffic volume throughout the
year.

• Traffic volumes fluctuate by day of the week and month, with notable increases near
recreational areas during summer months and differing distributions between weekdays
and weekends.

• While AADT provides a baseline estimate, engineers must recognize that actual traffic
volumes can significantly deviate due to temporal variations.
• The availability and level of aggregation of volume data are influenced by various factors.

• In most major urban areas, Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) play a crucial role in actively
managing traffic.

• TMCs typically concentrate on urban freeways and major arterials, continuously collecting
data on these roadways.

• Volume data for roads monitored by TMCs is often accessible at intervals ranging from 0.5 to 1
mile.

• Additionally, data at these monitoring sites is typically provided at a relatively disaggregated

level, often ranging from 20 seconds to 3 minutes.

• This granularity in data collection allows for precise monitoring and management of traffic
flow in urban areas, aiding in the implementation of effective traffic management strategies.
• In most states, actual volume data is collected continuously at a relatively small number
of locations.

• On facilities not monitored by TMCs, continuous volume data is only C5883_C001.indd

4 2/6/2009 7:55:32 PM Traffic Monitoring 1-5 available at permanent count stations.

• Permanent count stations collect data continuously at a limited number of predefined,

strategic locations in order to help estimate seasonal and daily variations in traffic
volumes.

• As an example, the state of Virginia has approximately 300 permanent count stations to
cover over 55,000 miles of state-maintained roads—an average of one station per 183 mi.
This data is typically summarized in increments of 15 min.
• Volume data for roads lacking permanent count stations is gathered through periodic coverage counts.

• Portable traffic counting equipment is deployed on the road at regular intervals, typically every three to five years.

• The portable traffic counters collect data over a limited period, often just two to three days.

• Seasonal and daily adjustment factors are then applied to estimate Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) on the road.

• Coverage count data is the primary source of volume data for the majority of roads, leading to infrequent counting for
many roads within a state.

• Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is another important measure related to volume.

• VMT is calculated by multiplying the volume of traffic using the road by the length of the road segment being analyzed.

• For instance, a road with an AADT of 30,000 vehicles per day and a length of 5 miles would have a daily VMT of
150,000.

• VMT is often utilized to normalize data, facilitating equitable comparisons of travel on roads with varying characteristics.
 1.2.2 Vehicle Classification
• Vehicle classification data records traffic volume with respect to the type of vehicle that passes a
point on the road (car, truck, and so on). Th e Federal Highway Administration

• (FHWA) has defined a set of 13 vehicle classes that are commonly used by most states. Those
vehicle classes include the following:
• Motorcycles.

• Passenger cars.

• Other two-axle, four-tire single-unit vehicles other than passenger cars. This class mostly consists of pickup
trucks, sports utility vehicles, and vans.

• Buses.

• Single-unit trucks, for which there are three separate classifications depending on the number of axles present.

• Tractor trailers, for which there are five different classifications depending on the number of axles and the
number of trailers present.
• Vehicle classification data plays several crucial roles in transportation engineering.

• The design of bridges and pavements is significantly influenced by the volume of truck traffic using the road.

• Trucks typically have different acceleration and deceleration characteristics compared to passenger vehicles,
necessitating accurate information on truck presence for traffic flow analyses.

• Detailed vehicle classification data is often less readily available compared to traffic volume data.

• Information on vehicle classification typically includes estimates of the percentage of traffic consisting of
buses, single-unit trucks, and tractor-trailers.

• Estimates of vehicle classification may exhibit significant variability, especially at locations where coverage
counts occur only every two to three years.

• Adequate understanding of vehicle classification is essential for designing infrastructure that can
accommodate different types of vehicles and their unique characteristics.
 1.2.3 Traffic Speed
• Speed data is primarily collected in major urban areas covered by Traffic Management Centers
(TMCs).

• In these locations, speed data serves various purposes, such as detecting congestion and tracking
historical congestion trends on roads.

• The availability and level of aggregation of speed data are like that of traffic volume data.

• Limited speed data is often available in rural areas or on arterial streets lacking permanent count
stations.

• Speed data is typically only accessible when special studies are conducted using portable
equipment.

• These studies are commonly associated with requests to modify speed limits, highlighting the
importance of accurate speed data in setting appropriate speed regulations.
• In transportation engineering, two types of speeds are defined:
• time mean speed (TMS) and

• space mean speed (SMS).

• Time mean speed (TMS) is calculated as the arithmetic average of the speeds of all
vehicles that pass a point on a road within a specific timeframe.

• Time mean speed is a measure of the average speed of vehicles over a given period.

• Space mean speed (SMS) is the average speed of vehicles over a certain distance
traveled.

• Both TMS and SMS are essential metrics used in transportation engineering for
analyzing traffic flow and congestion.
• An example is used to illustrate the difference between time mean speed (TMS) and space
mean speed (SMS) calculations.

• The example involves a 1-mile segment of road with two vehicles traveling at different speeds:
one at 30 mi/h and another at 60 mi/h.

• If the speeds are examined at a single point in the middle of the segment, the TMS would be
calculated as 45 mi/h, which is the average of 30 and 60 mi/h.

• To calculate the SMS, the time taken by each vehicle to travel the 1-mile segment is
determined.

• The 30 mi/h vehicle takes 2 minutes to travel 1 mile, while the 60 mi/h vehicle takes 1 minute.

• Using the SMS formula, the average speed considering the distance traveled by each vehicle
over the segment is calculated.
• There is a 5 mi/h difference in the average speed solely based on how the mean
speed of the road is determined.

• This discrepancy highlights an important distinction in transportation engineering.

• Different detection methods define average speeds differently.

• The example underscores the significance of understanding and appropriately

applying calculation methods for average speed determination.
• Speed data available in transportation engineering mostly consist of Time Mean
Speeds (TMS) collected at a single point on a road.

• Speed data collection stations are typically positioned at mid-block on arterial roads or
between interchanges on freeways to minimize the influence of turning, accelerating,
or decelerating vehicles.

• However, there can be issues if these single-point speeds are extrapolated to represent
long roadway segments, as congestion tends to occur near interchange ramps on
freeways and at intersections on arterial roads.

• Assuming speeds midway between interchanges or intersections as representative of

average conditions can lead to overestimation of travel speeds .

• Departments of Transportation (DOTs) are increasingly interested in collecting Space
Mean Speeds (SMS) data directly.

• Probe-based traffic monitoring systems are utilized for collecting SMS data,
measuring speeds of vehicles over road segments and accounting for delays at
intersections or interchanges.

• This shift towards collecting SMS data directly helps in defining the true average
speed of the road segment, considering any delays at intersections or interchanges.

• The relationship between TMS and SMS is defined as an essential aspect of

understanding traffic flow and congestion patterns accurately.
• where s is the standard deviation of SMS on the link. As a result, it is
theoretically possible to convert SMS values into TMS values.

• The fact that the two methods of determining speed produce different
results is important, and engineers should be aware of the type of speed
data that a particular sensor produces.
 Traffic Density
• Traffic density refers to the number of vehicles per mile on a section of road.

• Engineers find traffic density to be an important measure as it can serve as a

more reliable indicator of congestion compared to traffic volume or speed alone.

• Low vehicle count at a detector can indicate either low traffic volume or severe
congestion where vehicles are unable to pass.

• Direct collection of vehicle count per mile is challenging using conventional

sensors.
• Aerial photography has been occasionally used to gather data at known bottlenecks,
but it is not cost-effective in most cases.

• The difficulty in accurately measuring traffic density highlights the complexity of

analyzing traffic patterns and congestion on roadways.

• Despite challenges, finding effective methods for measuring traffic density is crucial
for transportation engineers to better understand and manage traffic flow.

• where T is the selected time period, N is the number of vehicles detected in time
period T, and tocc is the time that the selected detector is turned on.
• When density (or occupancy), speed, and volume are examined collectively, engineers
can characterize the traffic flow state accurately using available macroscopic models.

• These measures can be examined to assess traffic state, and to assess whether the sensor
collecting the data is producing valid data.

1.2.5 Travel Time

• Transportation agencies are increasingly interested in directly collecting travel time data
between two points.

• Historically, gathering travel time data has been challenging, often requiring special
studies where drivers manually drive a route and record travel times.
• Achieving statistical validity in these studies is difficult, and capturing sudden changes in
traffic conditions, like congestion onset, poses a challenge due to insufficient driver
participation.

• Consequently, travel time data is not widely available in most areas of the country.

• Emerging methods are beginning to address this scarcity and generate travel time data.

• One advantage of travel time data is its comprehensibility to the public, allowing them to
understand how it impacts their lives.

• Unlike traffic volume or occupancy, which are less relatable to the average driver, travel
time is a more meaningful measure for communication with politicians and the public.

• While not commonly available yet, travel time is viewed as an emerging measure of
effectiveness that is expected to gain greater prominence in the future.
 1.3 Commonly Used Sensor Technologies
• Sensor technologies used by Department of Transportation (DOTs) fall into two main categories:
intrusive and nonintrusive sensors.

• Intrusive sensors, such as inductive loop detectors (ILD), require insertion into the pavement for
installation or maintenance.

• Maintenance of intrusive detectors often necessitates lane closures, which can be a significant
challenge, especially in congested urban areas where lane closures impact traffic flow.

• Intrusive detectors must be replaced each time a road undergoes repaving.

• Nonintrusive detectors are installed either above or beside the roadway and do not typically require
lane closures for installation or maintenance.

• The section introduces three common sensors, discussing the advantages and disadvantages of each.
 1.3.1 Inductive Loop Detectors
• Inductive Loop Detectors (ILDs) are the most commonly used sensors for collecting traffic
data.

• ILDs have been in use since the 1960s and find widespread application in traffic signal
detection and freeway monitoring.

• These detectors are classified as intrusive, as they require insertion into the pavement.

• The design of ILDs involves a coiled wire embedded into the pavement.

• ILDs detect the presence of metal objects passing over the coiled wire.

• When a vehicle passes over or stops on top of an ILD, it alters the loop inductance of the wire.

• The change in loop inductance induced by the vehicle is detected by a controller, indicating the
presence of a vehicle.
• ILDs function as "presence" detectors, determining whether a vehicle is passing over them.

• While ILDs can estimate the length of vehicles, they do not explicitly count the number of
axles.

• ILDs can be installed in either single- or double-loop configurations.

• Single-loop detectors consist of a single coil of wire embedded in the pavement and are
typically used to provide traffic volume and density data.

• Double-loop configurations involve installing two loops in a lane, with a short space between
them.

• Double loops are essential for generating speed estimates.

• By placing the two ILDs a known distance apart, the speed of a vehicle can be estimated by
analyzing the time elapsed between the activations of the two loops.
Advantages of ILDs:

• Mature Technology: ILDs have been extensively used, resulting in a large base of
experience and knowledge.

• Comprehensive Data: ILDs can provide fundamental traffic data required by

transportation agencies, including volume, occupancy, TMS (Traffic Management
Systems), and vehicle classification.

• High Accuracy: ILDs generally offer the highest accuracy among commonly used
sensors, with reported accuracy ranging between -1% and +2% in various studies.
 Drawbacks of ILDs:
• Prone to Failure: Data suggests that an average of 2 to 4% of ILDs fail annually, introducing
reliability concerns.

• Regular Tuning Required: ILDs need frequent tuning to maintain high-quality speed and vehicle
classification data.

• Maintenance Challenges: Installation and maintenance of ILDs can be problematic, especially in

congested urban areas.

• Lane Closure for Replacement: If an ILD requires replacement, an entire lane of road must be closed
for the loop to be cut out and reinstalled, posing difficulties in urban settings where lane closure
impacts traffic flow.

• Replacement During Repaving: ILDs installed in pavement must be replaced when the road is
repaved, adding to maintenance challenges and costs.
• ILD failure rates and maintenance difficulties can result in large portions of an ILD
network not returning quality data.

• For instance, in 2005, the Virginia Department of Transportation Traffic

Management Center in Hampton Roads estimated that approximately 40% of their
ILDs were not providing quality data.

• Challenges in maintaining ILDs have been a significant factor driving the

exploration of alternative detection technologies.
 1.3.2 Video Detection Systems
• Video detection systems utilize cameras and image processing software to gather traffic
flow data.

• Cameras are positioned to capture the roadway, and the software analyzes pixel changes
between successive frames.

• The software detects when a vehicle enters the frame and then interprets its movement to
derive traffic flow parameters.

• These systems effectively simulate "virtual inductive loops" by superimposing detection

zones onto video images of the road surface.

• Detection zones function similarly to physical inductive loops, activating a virtual loop
when the software detects a vehicle entering the zone.
• Video detection offers several advantages over ILDs, including the ability
to collect all the same traffic flow parameters as inductive loops.

• A single controller and camera combination can detect multiple lanes on an

approach, enhancing efficiency.

• Since video detection cameras are mounted above the road, system
maintenance can often be carried out without the need to close traffic lanes,
reducing disruption.

• Video detection systems are nonintrusive detectors and do not need

replacement if a road is repaved, unlike ILDs.
• The primary application of video detection systems is in traffic signal control, with
cameras typically mounted at least 30 feet above the roadway to provide optimal visibility.

• Cameras are usually placed on the mast arm of a traffic signal pole, and virtual loops are
drawn on the lanes approaching the intersection for traffic signal detection applications.

• Video detection has become widespread for traffic signal detection due to its advantages,
such as the ability for a single camera to detect traffic on all lanes approaching an
intersection.

• The nonintrusive nature of video detection often makes it a more cost-effective solution for
traffic signal detection over the equipment's lifecycle compared to other methods.
• Despite its advantages, video detection also comes with limitations.

• Some periodic maintenance tasks, such as cleaning camera lenses, may require shutting down lanes,
causing traffic disruptions.

• Environmental factors like fog and snow can pose challenges for video processing software by reducing
the contrast between vehicles and the background.

• During heavy fog or snow events, the video detection system may inaccurately register vehicles on all
approaches, disrupting traffic signal operation.

• This can lead to delays for vehicles, especially if the signal switches to a traffic demand-responsive mode.

• Video detection systems can also be affected by high winds, causing the camera's field of view to move
and potentially misaligning detection zones.

• In such cases, the detection zones may not be aimed appropriately, impacting the system's effectiveness in
accurately detecting traffic.
1.Occlusion is one of the significant potential problems associated with video detection.
2.Occlusion occurs when a vehicle obstructs the view of another vehicle within the
camera's field of view.
• This obstruction can lead to undercounting of traffic volumes or inaccurate speed
estimation by the video detection system.

• The example in Figure 1.1 illustrates how occlusion impacts video detection, with a car
in one lane obscured by a truck in another lane, resulting in the car not being detected.

• Occlusion poses a risk of vehicles not being given a green phase to proceed,
particularly if video detection is utilized with a demand-responsive traffic signal.

• To mitigate the effects of occlusion, it is crucial to position cameras in locations where

occlusion effects are minimized.

• Typically, this involves mounting the camera at an angle as close as possible to straight
down to reduce the impact of occlusion on detection accuracy.
 1.3.3 Microwave Radar Sensors
• Microwave radar sensors offer a nonintrusive alternative to ILDs, providing various traffic

data such as volume, occupancy, TMS (Traffic Management Systems), and vehicle

classification.

• Due to their nonintrusive nature, microwave sensors can be placed flexibly, often mounted

on existing structures like sign structures, bridges, or adjacent posts to the roadway.

• They can be installed to collect data for a single lane or across multiple lanes, offering

versatility in deployment.

• The primary application of microwave sensors is to complement data collected from ILDs,

especially on major freeway facilities.

• While microwave radar systems generally provide good accuracy, well-functioning ILDs

typically produce superior results.

• Studies, such as one conducted by the Texas Transportation Institute (TTI), have found

microwave sensors to be consistent with ILDs, with differences in volume counts usually

averaging around 5%.

• Microwave sensors may suffer from occlusion problems similar to video detection, but

weather conditions typically do not significantly impact the data produced by microwave

radar, provided detection distances are short.

• Careful positioning of microwave radar sensors is essential to mitigate occlusion impacts

and ensure consistent and accurate data collection.

 1.4 Common Applications of Traffic Data
• Transportation agencies collect data for various purposes, serving functions from historical road
performance tracking to real-time traffic control and traveler information.

• Common functions of transportation agencies include but are not limited to traffic monitoring,
planning, operations, and maintenance.

• Data collected by transportation agencies supports these functions by providing valuable insights
and information.

• Traffic monitoring data serves as a crucial input for agencies, allowing them to make informed
decisions and effectively manage transportation systems.

• Although the discussion of agency functions and data collection is not exhaustive, it highlights the
essential role of traffic monitoring data in supporting transportation operations and management.
 1.4.1 Link Characterization
• The primary purpose of collecting traffic data is to establish a historical record of travel
characteristics along specific roadway segments over time.

• This data is often derived from permanent count stations and coverage count processes
outlined in the volume data section.

• Real-time traffic data availability is limited across the majority of the road system in
the United States, making historical roadway link information the primary source of
data, particularly in rural areas or non-freeway urban areas.

• The collected data supports various engineering decisions, including but not limited to:
1. Deciding how transportation funding dollars should be distributed to states, cities,

and counties

2. Determining how bridges, roads, and pavements are designed

3. Determining when a road should be repaved

4. Examining whether a location has a disproportionate number of crashes

5. Determining where roads may need to be in the future

6. Performing air quality conformity analyses

7. Guiding where development should occur

• Traffic data serves numerous functions in transportation engineering, illustrating why state
Departments of Transportation (DOTs) allocate significant resources to collect such data.

• One reason for states to invest in traffic monitoring programs is the federal government's
requirement for regular reporting of road condition and performance data.

• Federal regulations grant the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) the authority to
request any information necessary to administer the federal-aid highway program.

• Congress has mandated that the FHWA produce a biennial estimate of future highway
investment needs, and traffic data reported by states is a crucial component of this
estimation.

• Alongside other factors, the traffic data reported by states influences the allocation of
federal transportation funding to each state.
• Table 1.2 compares demographic and transportation characteristics of New York and Oklahoma,
highlighting the need for traffic data to allocate funding effectively.
• Despite having a similar number of lane miles of road, New York has over five times the population and
almost three times the Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT) compared to Oklahoma.
• The apportionment of funds to New York is approximately three times that of Oklahoma, indicating that
VMT plays a significant role in determining state funding allocation.
• VMT estimates, which are crucial for determining funding allocations, rely on
comprehensive statewide traffic monitoring programs in each state.

• The disparity in population and VMT between New York and Oklahoma underscores
the importance of accurate traffic data in determining how funding should be
allocated to address transportation needs effectively.

• The Highway Performance Monitoring System (HPMS) is a significant federal

reporting program.

• HPMS provides essential traffic data used by the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) and the U.S. Congress to define funding needs and determine the scope of
the federal highway program.
• It serves as a comprehensive data source for transportation planning functions, offering
summary data for highway statistics and long-term performance measurement.

• HPMS encompasses data on all public roads, with more detailed information available
for a sample of collector and arterial routes.

• States contribute data to HPMS, covering various issues such as pavement condition and
congestion-related data.

• The data provided through HPMS plays a crucial role in informing decision-making
processes at both the federal and state levels regarding transportation infrastructure
funding and planning.
1.4.2 Real-Time Freeway Monitoring and Control
• Data collected to characterize road segment conditions is vital for supporting various
analyses but is not intended to provide real-time support for operational decisions.

• Real-time data may not be necessary for areas of the transportation system experiencing
minimal congestion, such as low-volume rural roads.

• Characterizing the average traffic on low-volume rural roads is typically sufficient, as

real-time data on uncongested rural roads serves little purpose without the need for
active interventions.

• Real-time data is exceptionally valuable for urban freeways, which constitute a small
percentage of total road mileage but carry a significant portion of traffic.
• Urban freeways are prone to recurring congestion and unexpected incidents, impacting
motorists' journeys.

• Real-time data streams enable engineers to make informed decisions to actively

manage traffic, respond to incidents, and inform the public about current conditions on
urban freeways.

• The use of real-time data on urban freeways helps mitigate the impact of congestion by
implementing strategies to improve traffic flow and minimize disruptions for
motorists.
 1.4.2.1 Role of Traffic Management Centers
• TMCs (Traffic Management Centers) are common in urban areas and serve as central
hubs for freeway transportation system management.

• TMCs integrate data from various sensor sources and provide operators with tools to
manage traffic and communicate information to the public.

• Personnel at TMCs analyze data from sensors and closed-circuit television (CCTV) to
identify traffic problems and develop strategies to address them.

• Many TMCs are co-located with emergency responders to facilitate coordination during
incidents such as crashes or emergencies.
• TMCs often act as the central media contact point for freeway-related issues, providing
information to the public and media outlets.

• The control room within a TMC typically features workstations with a video wall
displaying images from CCTV cameras monitoring the freeway system.

• Workstations in the control room enable operators to perform tasks such as changing
messages on dynamic message signs (DMSs), accessing police dispatch reports, and
controlling the pan/tilt/zoom of CCTV cameras.

• The physical layout of a TMC is designed to provide operators with the necessary tools
and information to effectively manage traffic and respond to incidents on the freeway
network.
• Figure 1.2 illustrates key functions typically found at Traffic Management Centers
(TMCs).
The primary objective of TMCs is to develop corrective actions to address transportation
problems effectively.
Major functions of TMCs include:

1. Surveillance. The surveillance function involves the collection of data on traffic

flow conditions on the roadways being monitored.

2. Traveler information. In the traveler information function, the TMC provides

information on current conditions to the public, enabling them to change routes

or times of departure to avoid congestion.

3. Incident detection and management. Incident detection and management includes the timely detection of
sources of nonrecurring congestion and developing strategies to mitigate their impact.

4. Ramp and lane control. This involves dynamically changing traffic control devices on ramps and main
freeway lanes to improve traffic flow.

• In addition to the primary functions mentioned earlier, data from Traffic Management Centers (TMCs)

is frequently utilized to support performance measurement activities.

• Performance measurement activities involve tracking congestion trends over time, utilizing data

collected and analyzed by TMCs.

• These functions play a crucial role in assessing the effectiveness of transportation management

strategies and informing future planning and decision-making processes.

• Each of these functions will be further elaborated on in the subsequent sections, highlighting their
 1.4.2.2 Surveillance
• The effectiveness of a Traffic Management Center (TMC) in responding to traffic
conditions depends largely on its ability to monitor roadways.

• TMCs maintain a comprehensive network of sensors and cameras along the freeway
system within their coverage area.

• Various types of sensors, including Inductive Loop Detectors (ILDs), microwave radar,
and others, are utilized by TMCs to collect data on traffic flow.

• Data collected by these sensors is transmitted back to the TMC at relatively short
intervals, often around every 20 seconds.
• This data is typically archived for future use in reporting and serves as inputs for traffic
management decisions made at the TMC.

• Many TMCs utilize this real-time traffic data to provide estimates of traffic conditions to the
public through Dynamic Message Signs (DMSs) or via the internet.

• Real-time traffic estimates provided by TMCs contribute to improving situational awareness

for motorists and facilitate informed decision-making regarding route choices and travel plans.

• Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) play a vital role in supporting Closed-Circuit Television
(CCTV) cameras positioned strategically near crucial road sections and interchanges.

• CCTV cameras offer adjustable fields of view, enabling TMC operators to monitor real-time
traffic conditions within their vicinity.
• TMCs utilize CCTV cameras to validate the accuracy of sensor data received, ensuring the
reliability of traffic information.

• In the case of severe crashes or incidents, CCTV cameras allow TMC operators to remotely
monitor the situation and coordinate response efforts effectively.

• Video feeds from CCTV cameras are frequently shared with the public and media outlets to
provide updates on current traffic conditions, enhancing overall public awareness.

• CCTV cameras enhance the situational awareness of TMC operators, enabling informed
decision-making and effective traffic management.

• The integration of CCTV cameras into TMC operations enhances overall traffic surveillance
and incident management capabilities, contributing to safer and more efficient transportation
systems.
 1.4.2.3 Traveler Information
• A prominent function of Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) is to inform the traveling
public about current traffic conditions.

• Data gathered from sensors and CCTV cameras is utilized to furnish essential
information regarding congested areas and anticipated travel durations.

• TMCs amalgamate this data and communicate it to the public through diverse methods.

• The objective is to furnish travelers with comprehensive information about conditions

to help them circumvent recognized issues.

• Common methods of disseminating information to the public by TMCs include:

 1. Dynamic message signs (DMSs).
• Dynamic Message Signs (DMSs) installed on freeways serve as a direct means of providing information
to drivers while they are on the road.

• TMC operators control DMSs, determining which messages to display, often utilizing standard message
libraries for consistency and clarity.

• Information presented on DMSs varies and may include traffic congestion estimates, crash locations, or
travel time estimates between specific points.

• The primary advantage of DMSs is their ability to reach all traffic on the road, providing real-time
information to travelers en route.

• However, limitations include the restricted amount of information that can be conveyed to drivers
traveling at freeway speeds and the availability of information only at discrete points where DMSs are
installed.
 2. Highway advisory radio (HAR).
• Some Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) operate Highway Advisory Radio (HAR) systems,
which deliver traveler information via low-powered AM radio stations.

• HAR systems offer the advantage of conveying more detailed information compared to what can
be displayed on Dynamic Message Signs (DMS).

• HAR messages can include additional details such as traffic conditions, road closures, and
alternate routes.

• However, access to HAR information relies on drivers manually tuning their radio to the
designated station, meaning not all traffic on the road may receive the broadcasted information.

• Despite this limitation, HAR systems provide an alternative means of delivering comprehensive
traffic updates to drivers, complementing the information displayed on DMSs.
 3. 511 systems.

• The 511-telephone number is designated nationally to provide traveler information via

phone.

• As of 2007, 32 states have implemented 511 systems to disseminate traveler information.

• Many Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) play an active role in supplying information to
their respective state's 511 systems.

• While each state's 511 system varies slightly, most employ a voice-activated menu system
to offer details on travel delays, road conditions, and other pertinent information.

• The 511 system serves as a convenient and accessible resource for travelers to obtain real-
time updates and make informed decisions about their journeys.
 4. Web sites.
• TMCs frequently maintain websites that offer traffic condition information to the public.

• These websites typically feature a color-coded traffic condition map displaying speeds
across the freeway network.

• Many TMC websites also grant access to live CCTV camera images, allowing users to
visually inspect current road conditions.

• The primary advantage of TMC websites is the ability for travelers to plan their trips in
advance from the comfort of their home or office.

• However, it's important to note that not all travelers may have access to this information
while enroute to their destination, which can be a limitation of relying solely on website-
based updates.
 5. Media reports.
• TMCs collaborate with local media outlets to distribute information regarding traffic
conditions.

• CCTV camera feeds from TMCs are frequently shared with local television stations for
broadcast.

• Local traffic reporters commonly liaise with TMC staff to obtain updates and details about
traffic conditions.

• This collaboration ensures that timely and accurate traffic information reaches a wider
audience through various media channels.

• By sharing data and insights with local media, TMCs contribute to improving public
awareness and understanding of current traffic situations.
 1.4.2.4 Incident Detection and Management
• Nonrecurring delay is a major problem in urban areas.

• One core function of a Traffic Management Center (TMC) is to identify incidents and
mitigate their effects.

• Formal incident management programs in urban areas have shown significant delay
reductions.

• Even small reductions in incident clearance time can have dramatic effects on
congestion.

• Incident management programs across 272 urban areas have reduced delay by 129.5
million hours annually.
• First, the TMC must quickly identify when an incident has occurred. Incidents can
be identified in several ways:
1. Visual observation of CCTV cameras

2. Phone calls from the general public

3. Reports from DOT staff or police that are patrolling the freeways

4. Results of automated incident detection (AID) algorithms that examine changes

in sensor data.

• Most incidents reported to a Traffic Management Center (TMC) come from driver
phone calls or staff patrolling roads.

• CCTV cameras covering crash areas are directed towards the crash for verification
and clearance determination by the TMC.
• TMC sensor data is directly utilized in automated incident detection algorithms.

• These algorithms analyze sensor data to determine the likelihood of an incident.

• Academic research focuses on creating algorithms that detect incidents quickly while
minimizing false alarms.

• Data from adjacent sensors are compared and analyzed against historical trends.

• Two well-known approaches to incident detection algorithms are the California and
McMaster algorithms.

• The California algorithm identifies incidents by comparing occupancy changes

between upstream and downstream sensors.
• The McMaster algorithm assesses volume, occupancy, and speed to detect
changes in traffic flow characteristics.

• Alarms are triggered when significant traffic flow changes occur.

• Other methods, such as artificial neural networks and fuzzy logic, have been
proposed but are not widely adopted.

• Implementation of automatic incident detection (AID) techniques has been

problematic.

• A survey in 1996 found that only a small percentage of traffic management

centers used AID algorithms.
• TMCs using AID algorithms reported significant problems, including
excessive false alarms, errors during low volume conditions, and long
detection times.

• Excessive false alarms pose a critical problem in using AID algorithms for
incident detection.

• Despite advancements in AID technologies, reports from drivers, DOT

staff, and police are often quicker and more reliable in incident detection
due to widespread cellular phone ownership.
• TMCs coordinate efforts to remove incidents and restore normal traffic conditions.

• Freeway service patrols (FSPs) are dispatched by many TMCs to respond quickly to
incidents.

• FSP vehicles patrol designated routes to identify potential incidents.

• FSP vehicles are equipped to handle minor emergencies such as flat tires and fuel shortages.

• FSPs can also request tow trucks, police assistance, and set up temporary traffic control
measures.

• Despite their relatively small size, FSPs have been proven to provide significant benefits.

• Studies show that the benefits of FSPs outweigh their costs by a ratio of at least 5:1.
 1.4.2.5 Ramp and Lane Control
• Role of Traffic Management Centers (TMCs): TMCs heavily rely on sensor data for

various functions, including ramp and lane control on highways.

• Ramp and Lane Control: This function involves dynamically managing lane usage and

entry onto the freeway based on current traffic conditions.

• Purpose of Lane Control: Actively managing lane usage aims to improve traffic flow

on highways, thereby enhancing overall efficiency and reducing congestion.

• Ramp Metering: One common type of control is ramp metering, where traffic signals

are placed on entrance ramps to regulate the flow of vehicles accessing the highway.
• Objective of Ramp Meters: The primary goal of ramp meters is to prevent congestion on the freeway by
restricting the number of vehicles entering from the ramps.

• Addressing Capacity Bottlenecks: Capacity bottlenecks often occur near freeway ramp junctions, and ramp
meters aim to alleviate congestion by reducing the number of vehicles entering the highway.

• Operational Modes of Ramp Metering Systems: Ramp metering systems can operate in either a simple,
pretimed manner or a traffic-responsive manner.

• Simple Systems: In pretimed systems, a preset number of vehicles are allowed to access the highway from the
ramp during specific times of the day.

• Traffic-Responsive Systems: These systems dynamically adjust the number of vehicles allowed to enter the
highway based on the vehicle occupancy on the mainline freeway. As congestion increases, the rate of entry
onto the highway is reduced.

• Overall Impact: Ramp metering systems aim to improve freeway flow by effectively shifting potential delays
from the freeway to the ramps, ultimately enhancing the efficiency of the transportation network.
• Positive Effects of Ramp Meters: Ramp meters have demonstrated positive impacts on
freeway operations where implemented. In Washington State, a reduction in braking
maneuvers of up to 79% was observed near ramp meter locations.

• Comprehensive Evaluation in Minneapolis/St. Paul: In 2000, the Minnesota legislature

mandated a complete shutdown of ramp meters in the Twin Cities for evaluation.

• At the time, 430 ramp meters were installed over 210 miles of freeway.

• Observations After Shutdown: The DOT noted a 9% reduction in freeway volumes post
shutdown with no corresponding increase on parallel arterial routes.

• During peak hours, throughput on the freeway declined by 14%. Conclusion: The
evaluation conclusively showed that ramp meters were positively impacting traffic flow.
• Shoulder Usage Based on Historic Data:

• Shoulders are often opened at predetermined times determined by historical data

on peak travel periods.
• Activation of shoulder signals is typically managed by the Traffic Management
Center (TMC).

• Safety Considerations:

• An important consideration in shoulder travel is its impact on safety, particularly

regarding disabled vehicles.
• Monitoring by the TMC is crucial to prevent conflicts between disabled vehicles
and through traffic when the shoulder is in use.
• Active Traffic Management in the United States:

• Active traffic management techniques, like dynamically opening shoulders, are

gaining interest in the United States.
• Several Departments of Transportation (DOTs) are exploring the feasibility of
implementing this technique in the US.
 1.4.2.6 Performance Measurement
• Increasing Pressure on State DOTs:
• State Departments of Transportation (DOTs) face growing pressure to demonstrate the
wise use of transportation funds.

• Politicians often demand quantitative data to track the performance of transportation

facilities.

• Regular Reporting of Facility Performance:

• State DOTs have started regularly reporting the performance of key facilities over time.

• Archived data from Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) is a crucial input for these
activities due to its robustness.
• Washington State DOT's Leadership in Performance Measurement:
• Washington State DOT is recognized as a leader in performance measurement.
• They publish a quarterly report titled "Measures, Markers, and Mileposts,"
commonly known as the Gray Notebook.
• The Gray Notebook addresses various issues such as safety, congestion, project
delivery, and infrastructure condition.
• Congestion Measures Tracked by Washington:
• Washington State tracks congestion measures as part of its performance
monitoring.
• Examples of congestion measures include:
1. The number of severe incidents lasting more than 90 min
2. The average peak travel time
3. Vehicle throughput
4. Delay
5. The percent of days that speed falls below 35 mi/h
6. The duration of congestion
1. Importance of TMC Data:

1. Data generated by Traffic Management Centers (TMCs) is vital for producing reports like the Gray
Notebook.

2. Real-time data from TMCs is archived and serves as a valuable resource for performance
measurement and historical analysis of freeway facilities.

2. Utilization of TMC Data:

1. TMC data is utilized for performance measurement and other historical analyses.

2. It provides rich insights into the functioning of freeway facilities over time.

3. Increasing Emphasis on Performance Measurement:

1. Many TMCs are increasingly considering performance measurement as one of their core functions.

2. This highlights the growing recognition of the importance of analyzing and improving
transportation system performance.
1.4.3 Traffic Control on Surface Streets
• Definition of Surface Streets:
• Surface streets refer to roads that do not control how adjacent properties access
the road, essentially nonfreeways.
• Purpose of Installing Sensors:
• Sensors are commonly installed on surface streets to support traffic signal
operations.
• They are crucial components of traffic signal systems that respond to traffic
demand on various approaches.
• Three Basic Methods of Traffic Signal Control:
• There are three fundamental ways that traffic signals are controlled,
including:
1. Pretimed Control:
1. In pretimed control, traffic signals operate based on fixed time intervals for each movement at an intersection.
2. This control method does not respond to traffic conditions, and no sensors are used.
3. Pretimed control is suitable for areas with consistent traffic volumes or closely spaced interconnected signals,
such as downtown areas.
2. Semi actuated Control:
1. Semi actuated control involves sensors on minor road approaches at an intersection.
2. When vehicles are detected on minor road approaches, the signal controller is notified to display a green
indication.
3. This control method is utilized when there is a predominant higher volume route, and minor roads experience
intermittent traffic demand.
3. Fully Actuated Control:
1. Fully actuated control employs sensors to detect traffic on all approaches to an intersection.
2. It is a demand-responsive system capable of accommodating changing traffic flow patterns on different
approaches.
1. Importance of Sensors in Traffic Control:
• Sensors are crucial components of semi actuated and actuated control systems.

• They determine actual vehicular demand at intersections, influencing which movements

are given a green signal and for how long.

2. Operation Modes of Traffic Signals:

• Traffic signals can operate as isolated intersections or as part of a coordinated system.

• In isolated intersections, controllers allocate green time based on traffic demand within
set parameters defined by engineers.
• Coordinated systems aim to efficiently move traffic along a route by minimizing stops.
Signal timings are coordinated so vehicles arrive at adjacent signals during green
indications.
Primary Intersection Detection Methods:

• Inductive loop detectors (ILDs) and video detection are the primary means used for

intersection detection.

Role of Sensor Data in Demand-Responsive Signals:

• Sensor data plays a critical role in demand-responsive signals.

• However, this data is often not retained beyond the signal cycle.

Operation of Traffic Signals:

• Sensor data is sent to a roadside controller that operates the signal.

• After completing the signal cycle, the data is typically deleted.

Traffic Operations Centers:

Major urban areas often have traffic operations centers that allow remote monitoring and
operation of signals from a central point.

These centers may or may not be separate entities from Traffic Management Centers (TMCs).

Dynamic Signal Timing:

Traffic operations centers can dynamically change signal timing plans based on observed
traffic conditions.

Archiving Sensor Data:

Some traffic operations centers archive sensor data at signals for future use, such as volume
counts for other purposes.

However, this archived signal system data is not commonly accessible.

 1.5 Probe-Based Detection Methods
• Traditional Data Collection Methods:

• Departments of Transportation (DOTs) traditionally use networks of point detectors to gather information.

• Inductive loop detectors (ILDs), video detection, and microwave radar are commonly employed for detailed data collection at
specific locations.

• Challenges of Point Detectors:

• While these methods excel at collecting data at individual points, challenges arise when extrapolating this data to cover extended
road lengths.

• On freeways, congestion typically initiates where there are high volumes of traffic entering or exiting the freeway and where lane
reductions occur.

• Point detectors placed between interchanges may not effectively characterize the traffic experience along a road, especially if
congestion at interchanges is not captured.

• Issues on Arterial Roads:

• Arterial roads face additional challenges, with traffic signals and vehicle movements in and out of driveways affecting travel speeds
between midblock sensors.

• The influence of traffic signals and turning vehicles can lead to significant reductions in average travel speed, making it challenging
• Growing Interest in Performance Data:
• Departments of Transportation (DOTs) are increasingly interested in capturing performance data across
entire roadway links.
• This interest stems from the desire to gain better insights into issues related to travel time and travel time
variability.
• New Monitoring Methods:
• DOTs are deploying new monitoring methods that rely on probe vehicle data to gather information.
• Probe vehicle-based systems track the movements of a subset of vehicles to estimate travel characteristics
for all vehicles on the road.
• Characteristics of Probe Vehicle Systems:
• Probe vehicle systems can estimate speed and travel time on a road section.
• However, they typically do not provide estimates of traffic volume or density.
• Estimation of Speed-Measured System (SMS):
• Using probe vehicle data, estimates of SMS are generated rather than traditional Traffic Measurement
Systems (TMS).
• Speed estimates derived from probe vehicle data more accurately represent the driving experience of
motorists.
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) Technology:

• Four methods discussed in this section rely on intelligent transportation systems

technology to generate information.

Probe Vehicle-Based Systems:

• All four methods are probe vehicle-based systems, but their technical maturity levels
vary.

Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) and Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL):

• AVI and AVL have been demonstrated to be technically viable through large-scale field
deployments.

• However, they have not achieved widespread implementation in the field.

Wireless Location Technology:

Several pilot tests of wireless location technology have been conducted, but the
data quality has not been deemed sufficient for most traffic engineering
applications.

Vehicle Infrastructure Initiative:

The Vehicle Infrastructure Initiative is still in early development stages, with no

production-level deployments underway.

Potential Benefits and Disadvantages:

The section discusses the potential benefits and disadvantages of each system,
providing insights into their suitability for various traffic engineering applications.
 1.5.1 Automatic Vehicle Identification
AVI Systems:
• AVI systems utilize toll transponders from electronic toll collection systems to determine
travel times on roads.
Functionality of Toll Transponders:
• Drivers acquire toll transponders for electronic toll collection and mount them on their
vehicles.
• Toll transponder tags reflect encoded radio signals transmitted from roadside antennas or
readers.
Modified Signals:
• The reflected signals are modified by the toll tag identification code, enabling the system to
read the tag's information.
Use in Electronic Tolling:
• In an electronic tolling environment, this information is used to debit the customer's account
to pay a toll.
Advantages of Toll Transponders:
• Drivers equipped with transponders can pass through toll booths at high speeds without the
need to slow down or stop manually to pay a toll.
Adaptation for Traffic Monitoring:
• The AVI system has been adapted for traffic monitoring purposes.
• Roadside antennas are installed along major highways where the Department of Transportation
(DOT) wants to collect information on travel times or speeds.
Data Collection Process:
• Unique toll tag identification numbers are logged each time a vehicle passes by an antenna.
• However, the customer's account is not charged during this process.
Calculation of Travel Time:
• The travel time of the vehicle can be explicitly calculated by analyzing when it passes known
antenna locations on the highway.
• This method provides accurate point-to-point travel times for all vehicles equipped with toll
transponders.
Implementation Example:
• Figure 1.4 illustrates an example of how this system works.
• Antennas are mounted on sign structures spanning the freeway, and the vehicle's transponder is
logged each time it passes an antenna.
Antenna Spacing:
• Antennas are typically spaced at least 1 mile apart from each other along the highway.
Dependency on Probe Vehicles:

The effectiveness of AVI-based monitoring systems relies on the number of probe vehicles on the
road.

A sufficient number of probe vehicles must travel a route for travel time estimates to have statistical
validity.

Minimum Number of Probe Vehicles:

Past research suggests that between one and four vehicles are needed to traverse a link every 5
minutes to generate travel time estimates at a 95% level of confidence.

Viability Concerns:

The viability of AVI-based systems is limited in areas with insufficient toll roads and electronic toll
collection users.

Many urban areas lack a sufficient number of transponders to justify the installation of these systems.
Infrastructure Requirements:
• AVI-based systems necessitate significant roadside infrastructure, including AVI tag
readers and communications equipment, for data collection.
• The installation of AVI tag readers and communication infrastructure incurs
substantial capital and operating costs.

Cost Considerations:
• Capital costs for a single detector site on a six-lane highway range from $18,000 to
$38,000, with annual operating costs ranging from $4,000 to $6,000 per site.
• If sites are spaced every 1 to 2 miles, the cumulative costs can be significant.
Robust AVI-Based Traffic Monitoring System:
Houston, TX, hosts one of the most robust AVI-based traffic monitoring systems in the
United States.
Antenna Installation:
Antennas are strategically installed on major freeways in the Houston area, with an
average spacing of 3 miles.
Coverage:
The system covers a vast network, including 227 miles of freeway and 100 miles of high-
occupancy vehicle lanes.
Toll Facilities and Transponders:
Houston boasts several major toll facilities, contributing to the widespread use of toll tags.
Over one million toll tags were in use in 2003, facilitating the generation of travel time
estimates.
Quality Estimates:
In such an operating environment with a high number of toll facilities and transponder
usage, AVI-based monitoring systems can produce high-quality speed and travel time
estimates.
 1.5.2 Automatic Vehicle Location
Definition of AVL:

• AVL stands for Automatic Vehicle Location, which comprises a suite of technologies used to track the

location of vehicles within the roadway network.

Common Applications:

• AVL systems are frequently utilized by transit companies to track buses on their routes.

• Additionally, trucking and package delivery companies use AVL systems for fleet management and routing

activities.

Utilization for Speed and Travel Time Estimates:

• Similar to AVI systems, AVL location data can be leveraged to develop speed and travel time estimates.
Signpost System:
• One method used by AVL systems, known as the signpost system, is commonly employed
by transit agencies with fixed routes.
• Roadside transmitters emit unique identification codes that approaching vehicles receive
and store along with relevant information.
• This data is then transmitted back to a central control facility at predetermined intervals.

GPS-Based Method:
• Another method relies on Global Positioning System (GPS) data.

• GPS data is continuously collected by the vehicle and periodically transmitted back to a
central control facility via radio, cellular service, or satellite communication networks.
Data Generation Capability:
• AVL systems can generate location data that can be utilized to generate traffic data.

Reduced Infrastructure Requirements:

• GPS-based AVL systems require fewer fixed infrastructure requirements compared to AVI-based systems.

• These systems do not require roadside hardware, allowing vehicles to be monitored anywhere on the

network.

Usage for Speed and Travel Time Estimates:

• AVL-based systems have been used to provide estimates of speed and travel times on roads lacking point

sensors.

Limitations:
• One limitation is that only a small subset of the vehicle population is equipped with AVL equipment.

• This limitation may result in similar sample size limitations encountered by AVI systems.
Representation of Traffic Data:
• AVL systems used in transit vehicles may not provide data representative of all traffic due to the frequent
stops made for passenger loading and unloading.
Reluctance of Trucking Companies:
• Trucking companies have been hesitant to share their AVL (Automatic Vehicle Location) data with others.
• This reluctance stems from concerns about potentially losing competitive advantages in the marketplace.
Limited Availability of Data:
• As a result of this reluctance, AVL data from trucking companies is not widely available for use in
generating traffic estimates.
Insufficiency of Data:
• Even data generated by transit agencies and individual trucking companies may not be sufficient to
generate high-quality estimates of speeds and travel times for an entire region.
• The volume of data may be insufficient to provide comprehensive insights into traffic conditions across a
broad area.
1.5.3 Wireless Location Technology-Based Monitoring Systems
AVL and AVI Focus:
• AVL- and AVI-based monitoring systems primarily monitor a relatively small population of
vehicles.

Limitations:
• These systems have limitations in terms of the number of vehicles monitored and the size of the
roadway network covered.

Wireless Location Technology (WLT):

• WLT-based traffic monitoring offers the potential to overcome these limitations.

• It involves anonymously tracking the location of cellular phones in vehicles as they travel
through the network.
Evolution of WLT Technology:

Early-generation WLT systems, developed in the 1990s, estimated phone locations by analyzing wireless signal data from multiple
towers.

Specialized equipment was required at cellular towers to collect this data.

Shift in Approach:

Since around 2000, WLT-based systems have shifted focus to leveraging existing data collected by cellular companies for location
estimation.

Cellular Network Functionality:

The cellular communications network maintains approximate phone locations to efficiently route calls.

As a phone moves through the roadway network, it periodically checks signal strength with the nearest cellular tower.

When signal strength drops below a preset threshold, a handoff occurs, transferring the call to an adjacent tower seamlessly.

Utilization of Handoff Data:

Modern WLT systems analyze handoff data to estimate vehicle speeds.

Approximate geographic locations of handoffs are determined, and algorithms are developed to assign paths and calculate travel times
based on a series of handoffs.
Advantages of WLT-Based Approaches for Generating Speed and Travel Time
Information:

Abundant Probes:
WLT-based approaches benefit from a vast pool of potential probes as any cellular phone can serve as
one.

With over 72% of households in the United States having wireless service in September 2006, probe
penetration is not a concern.

Broad Coverage:
Any road with cellular service can theoretically be monitored using WLT-based approaches.

This eliminates the need for installing additional infrastructure on the road, potentially reducing costs
and deployment complexity.
Barriers to Widespread Use of WLT-Based Monitoring:
Technological Maturity:

• Despite numerous deployments in the United States, WLT-based monitoring technology

has not yet reached a level of maturity to produce data with sufficient accuracy.

• Spatial accuracy of location estimates in WLT systems is inferior to GPS data, leading to
challenges such as inability to differentiate between multiple phones in the same vehicle
or determine speed differences between adjacent lanes of traffic.

• Existing systems struggle to provide precise estimates of speed and travel times,
especially on closely spaced urban roads.
• Institutional Issues:

• There are institutional barriers related to the adoption and implementation of

WLT-based monitoring systems.
• Concerns persist regarding data latency and accuracy in certain scenarios,
hindering the widespread acceptance and utilization of these systems.
• Institutional Concerns:

• Data generated by WLT-based monitoring systems is typically provided by third-party

vendors who sell it as a service to transportation agencies.
• Ownership rights and distribution rights of the data by the transportation agency (DOT) are
unclear, posing institutional challenges.
• Without a production-level system deployed, the final costs associated with implementing a
large-scale system remain unknown, impeding decision-making regarding cost-effectiveness.

• Uncertainty Surrounding Costs and Savings:

• The potential cost savings of adopting a WLT-based monitoring system are uncertain due to
the lack of a deployed production-level system.
• It is unclear whether using a WLT-based monitoring system would result in any cost savings.
• Privacy Concerns:

• There are public concerns regarding the privacy implications of WLT-based

monitoring systems.
• While federal communications law prohibits cellular companies from releasing
individually identifiable information, aggregate data on link speeds may not be
protected.
• Although there are no legal barriers to using the technology for most traffic
management applications, addressing public perceptions of privacy issues is
necessary.
1.5.4 Vehicle Infrastructure Integration
Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) Program:
• The VII program aims to establish a platform for exchanging real-time data between
vehicles and roadside infrastructure.
• It is a collaborative effort involving the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT),
several state DOTs, and the automobile industry.
• The primary objective of the program is to enhance safety by providing timely alerts
of hazardous conditions on roadways.
• Additionally, the technology has the potential to collect real-time traffic data, offering
insights into traffic conditions.
Technology Used:

The VII program utilizes Dedicated Short-Range Communications (DSRC) technology,

operating in the 5.9 GHz band.

DSRC enables communication between vehicles and roadside infrastructure elements,

facilitating the exchange of data.

Development Stage:

As of the present, the VII program remains in the research and development phase.

No market-ready systems based on VII technology have been deployed yet.

Safety Focus:

While the primary focus of the VII program is on safety enhancements, its potential extends to
real-time traffic data collection, indicating broader applications beyond safety alone.
Components of the VII Architecture:
• The architecture consists of On-Board Units (OBUs) installed in vehicles and Roadside Units (RSUs) placed along
roadways.
• OBUs collect data about vehicles and their surroundings, storing it for a certain period, typically 3 to 15 minutes.

• Data collection occurs periodically and in response to specific events like skidding or sudden deceleration.

Data Exchange Mechanism:

• When an OBU passes an RSU, it transmits its stored data to the RSU using Dedicated Short-Range Communications
(DSRC).
• RSUs can also share information gathered from other vehicles with OBUs during this exchange.

Potential Applications:
• The exchange of data between vehicles and roadside units enables various safety applications.

• For instance, information about vehicles approaching an intersection could be shared with roadside hardware, allowing it
to alert other vehicles if it's unsafe to enter the intersection, such as when someone is about to run a red light.
• The VII architecture is being explored for its ability to enhance safety at intersections and in other driving scenarios.
Traffic Operations Implications:

• The Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) program could have significant implications for traffic operations.

• Real-time information about traffic speeds and congestion obtained through VII could enable dynamic adjustments to

traffic signal timings.

• Additionally, this data could be utilized to provide traveler information, helping drivers avoid congested routes.

Potential Accuracy of Speed Estimates:

• Early simulation studies suggest that VII could provide reasonably accurate estimates of speed, with an error margin of 3

to 4 miles per hour.

• These estimates could be achieved with OBU penetrations as low as 1%.

Need for Field Data Confirmation:

• While simulation results are promising, they have not yet been validated with actual field data.

• Confirming the accuracy and effectiveness of VII-based speed estimates would require real-world testing and data

collection.
Early Stage of Development:
• The Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) program is still in its early stages of development.

• Several obstacles need to be addressed before it becomes a viable system for widespread
implementation.

Testing and Evaluation:

• Thorough testing and evaluation of the technology are essential to ensure its reliability and accuracy.

• It's crucial to validate the performance of VII before full-scale deployment.

Deployment Challenges:
• Successful deployment of VII requires a significant number of vehicles and roadside locations
equipped with the technology.
• Limited penetration of VII technology in vehicles or inadequate roadside infrastructure would hamper
the generation of valuable information.
Cost Considerations:

• Cost is a major unresolved issue for the VII program.

• While the cost of in-vehicle systems is borne by purchasers, states must cover the expenses
of installing and maintaining roadside equipment.

• Adding a large network of communications and roadside hardware represents a substantial

capital, operating, and maintenance expense for agencies.

Resource Allocation:

• Agencies need to assess whether they have the resources to effectively operate a VII system.

• They must weigh the benefits of implementing VII against the associated costs to determine
its feasibility.