ECOSYSTEMS AND BIODIVERSITY
DR. G. NJAGI, Ph.D.
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES
& EDUCATION
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
An ecosystem is a community of living organisms
(plants, animals, and microbes) interacting with
their physical environment (air, water, soil, etc.).
These interactions involve processes like energy
flow and nutrient cycling. Ecosystems vary in size
and complexity, ranging from small ponds to
large forests, deserts, and oceans.
Each ecosystem has unique characteristics that
support different forms of life.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
1. Terrestrial Ecosystems;
These ecosystems are found on land and vary
greatly depending on climate, geography, and
plant and animal life.
a. Forest Ecosystems
Tropical rainforests: Found near the equator,
these ecosystems have high rainfall, humidity, and
a vast diversity of species. Examples include the
Amazon Rainforest.
Temperate forests: Located in moderate
climates, these forests experience distinct seasons.
Examples include deciduous forests in North
America and Europe.
Boreal forests (taiga): Located in the northern
hemisphere, these forests are cold, with
coniferous trees like pines and firs.
b. Grassland Ecosystems
Tropical grasslands (savannas): Found in
regions like Africa and South America, these
ecosystems have a mixture of grasses and
scattered trees and are home to large herbivores
like zebras and antelopes.
Temperate grasslands: Found in regions like
North America (prairies) and Eurasia (steppes),
these ecosystems are dominated by grasses and
experience distinct seasons.
c. Desert Ecosystems
Deserts are characterized by very low rainfall. Plants
and animals in these ecosystems are adapted to
harsh, dry conditions. Examples include the Sahara
Desert in Africa.
d. Tundra Ecosystems
Found in polar regions and at high mountain altitudes,
tundras are cold and treeless. The growing season is
short, and the soil often remains frozen (permafrost).
Examples include the Arctic tundra.
e. Mountain Ecosystems
These ecosystems vary with altitude and climate.
Higher altitudes have colder climates and may have
alpine meadows and glaciers, while lower altitudes
may support forests or grasslands.
2. Aquatic Ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystems are water-based and are divided
into freshwater and marine ecosystems.
a. Freshwater Ecosystems
These ecosystems include water bodies with low salt
content, such as:
Rivers and streams: Flowing water ecosystems
that support species adapted to moving water.
Lakes and ponds: Standing water ecosystems
where species may vary depending on water depth,
temperature, and nutrient levels.
Wetlands: Areas where water covers the soil,
either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands support
diverse plant and animal species and play a crucial
role in water filtration, flood control, and carbon
storage.
b. Marine Ecosystems
Marine ecosystems are saltwater environments that
cover more than 70% of the Earth’s surface. They
include:
Oceans: The largest and most diverse ecosystems,
with different zones ranging from sunlit waters to deep
ocean floors. They support species from plankton to
whales.
Coral reefs: Often called "rainforests of the sea,"
coral reefs are highly diverse ecosystems found in
shallow tropical waters. They provide habitats for a
wide range of marine life.
Estuaries: Areas where rivers meet the sea,
resulting in a mixture of freshwater and saltwater.
Estuaries are highly productive ecosystems that
support diverse species and serve as important
breeding grounds.
3. Human-Made Ecosystems
Humans have created or modified ecosystems for
agriculture, urbanization, and industrial use. These
include:
Agricultural ecosystems: Farms, croplands, and
pastures where plants are cultivated and animals
are raised for human consumption.
Urban ecosystems: Cities and towns where
human infrastructure dominates but where plants,
animals, and microorganisms still interact.
NB: These ecosystems are subject to different
challenges and require specific conservation and
management efforts to maintain balance and
biodiversity.
HUMAN INTERACTIONS WITH ECOSYSTEMS
Human interactions with ecosystems are diverse and
can have both positive and negative impacts.
Over time, human activities have significantly
altered ecosystems, affecting biodiversity, ecosystem
services, and natural processes. These interactions
can be classified into several categories:
1.Positive Human Interactions with Ecosystems
a.Conservation and Restoration
Protected areas: Humans designate national parks,
wildlife reserves, and marine protected areas to
conserve biodiversity and protect ecosystems from
degradation. Examples include Yellowstone National
Park (USA) and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park
(Australia).
Restoration projects: Efforts to restore
degraded ecosystems, such as reforestation,
wetland restoration, or coral reef restoration, aim
to bring ecosystems back to their original
condition. For instance, mangrove restoration
projects help protect coastlines and rebuild
marine biodiversity.
Sustainable land and water management:
Practices like agroforestry, sustainable
agriculture, and regenerative farming help
preserve soil health, water resources, and
biodiversity while supporting human needs.
b. Ecosystem Services Management
Sustainable fishing and hunting: Regulating
and managing fish stocks, hunting quotas, and
protecting endangered species help maintain
biodiversity and ecological balance.
Water conservation: Building rainwater
harvesting systems and improving irrigation
efficiency help preserve freshwater ecosystems and
reduce water stress.
Ecotourism: Encouraging responsible travel to
natural areas promotes conservation while
generating income for local communities,
contributing to ecosystem protection and
environmental education.
a. Habitat Destruction
Deforestation: Logging for timber, agriculture, and
urban expansion destroys forests, leading to habitat
loss, reduced biodiversity, and climate change effects.
The Amazon rainforest, for example, has seen
significant deforestation in recent decades.
Urbanization: Expanding cities, building roads, and
industrialization fragment ecosystems, displacing
wildlife and reducing the natural environment's ability
to sustain biodiversity.
Agricultural expansion: Converting natural
ecosystems into farmland (e.g., for crops like soy or
palm oil) leads to habitat destruction, soil degradation,
and water depletion.
b. Pollution
Air pollution: Emissions from vehicles, factories, and
burning fossil fuels lead to air pollution, which can
damage ecosystems through acid rain, ozone depletion,
and climate change. Acid rain can lower the pH of soils
and freshwater ecosystems, harming plants and
animals.
Water pollution: Chemicals from industrial waste,
agricultural runoff (e.g., pesticides and fertilizers), and
plastic waste pollute rivers, lakes, and oceans, harming
aquatic life and contaminating water supplies.
Soil pollution: Improper disposal of industrial waste,
excessive use of fertilizers, and chemical spills degrade
soil health, reducing its ability to support plant and
animal life.
c. Overexploitation
Overfishing: Unsustainable fishing practices, such
as trawling and overharvesting, lead to the depletion
of fish populations, which affects marine ecosystems
and food chains.
Logging and hunting: Illegal logging and poaching
for wildlife products (like ivory and fur) threaten
species survival and disrupt ecosystems. For
example, poaching of elephants for ivory has
drastically reduced their populations in Africa.
Mining and resource extraction: Activities like
mining for minerals, oil drilling, and fracking disturb
ecosystems, causing habitat destruction, pollution,
and biodiversity loss.
d. Climate Change
Human-induced climate change has wide-ranging
effects on ecosystems. Burning fossil fuels,
deforestation, and industrial activities release
greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the
atmosphere. Key impacts on ecosystems include:
Temperature shifts: Many species are struggling
to adapt to rising temperatures, leading to changes
in migration patterns, breeding seasons, and food
availability.
Ocean acidification: Increased carbon dioxide
absorption by the oceans is making the water more
acidic, which threatens marine life, especially coral
reefs and shellfish.
Sea-level rise: Coastal ecosystems like
wetlands and mangroves are under threat
from rising sea levels, which lead to habitat
loss and increased flooding.
Extreme weather events: More frequent
and intense storms, droughts, and wildfires
disrupt ecosystems, leading to habitat
destruction and species displacement.
3. Human-Induced Invasive Species
Human activities, such as global trade and
travel, introduce non-native species to new
environments. Some of these species become
invasive, outcompeting local species and
disrupting ecosystems.
For example, the introduction of zebra
mussels in North American lakes has negatively
affected native species and water quality.
4. Agricultural and Industrial Impacts
Monoculture farming: The practice of growing a
single crop over large areas reduces biodiversity and
soil health. It also leads to increased reliance on
pesticides and fertilizers, which further degrade
ecosystems.
Pesticides and herbicides: Excessive use of
chemical pesticides and herbicides harms not only the
targeted pests but also non-target species like bees,
birds, and beneficial insects, reducing biodiversity and
disrupting food webs.
Industrialization: Large-scale manufacturing and
industrial processes create pollution, generate waste,
and contribute to habitat destruction, all of which
negatively affect ecosystems.
5. Human Population Growth and Resource
Consumption
The growing human population increases the demand
for natural resources, leading to more deforestation,
overfishing, mining, and agriculture. As people consume
more resources, ecosystems become overburdened,
leading to loss of biodiversity and ecological balance.
6. Conservation Efforts and Environmental Policies
Environmental laws and regulations:
Governments worldwide implement environmental
regulations to limit pollution, protect endangered
species, and manage natural resources sustainably.
Examples include the Endangered Species Act in the
U.S. and international treaties like the Paris Agreement
on climate change.
Community-based conservation: Local
communities often play a critical role in
conserving ecosystems, especially in areas
where traditional knowledge and
sustainable practices are central to
environmental stewardship.
SUSTAINABLE ECOSYSTEM
MANAGEMENT
Sustainable Ecosystem Management (SEM) refers
to the approach of managing natural resources and
ecosystems in a way that meets current human needs
without compromising the ability of future generations
to meet their own needs.
SEM balances ecological, economic, and social goals to
ensure the long-term health and resilience of
ecosystems while supporting human livelihoods.
Key Principles of Sustainable Ecosystem Management
1. Ecosystem Integrity and Biodiversity
Protecting and maintaining the ecological processes
that sustain ecosystems (e.g., nutrient cycles, energy
flows, and biodiversity) is critical for ecosystem health.
Preserving biodiversity helps ecosystems remain
resilient and adaptive to environmental changes,
such as climate change or natural disasters.
2. Adaptive Management
Sustainable management involves flexibility and
continuous learning. Adaptive management means
adjusting strategies based on new scientific
information, monitoring results, and environmental
changes.
By using a trial-and-error approach, managers can
experiment with different methods and refine them
to improve outcomes.
3. Multi-Scale Perspective
Ecosystems function at multiple scales, from local
to regional to global. Sustainable management
should take into account how activities at one
scale affect ecosystems at other scales.
For example, forest management should consider
not only local biodiversity but also global carbon
sequestration and climate regulation.
4. Stakeholder Participation
Engaging local communities, indigenous peoples,
scientists, policymakers, and other stakeholders is
essential for sustainable ecosystem management.
Inclusive decision-making ensures that different
perspectives and knowledge systems are considered,
leading to more equitable and effective outcomes.
5. Precautionary Principle
In the face of uncertainty, managers should err on the
side of caution to prevent harm to ecosystems. This
principle is especially important when dealing with
irreversible damage, such as species extinction or
habitat destruction.
6. Integration of Ecological, Economic, and Social
Goals
SEM recognizes that ecosystems provide vital goods
and services to human societies, such as clean water,
food, air, and climate regulation.
Sustainable management aims to balance ecological
protection with economic development and social well-
being.
Sustainable Ecosystem Management
Strategies
1. Ecosystem-Based Management (EBM)
EBM is a holistic approach that considers the
entire ecosystem, including humans, when
making management decisions. It focuses on
maintaining ecosystem health and services
rather than managing individual species or
resources in isolation.
Examples include managing marine fisheries
to protect not only fish populations but also
the habitats and species that support them,
such as coral reefs and seagrass beds.
2. Conservation of Ecosystem Services
Ecosystem services are the benefits that humans
derive from nature, such as pollination, water
purification, and carbon sequestration. Sustainable
management aims to maintain these services by
preserving the ecosystems that provide them.
Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) schemes,
where people or businesses pay landowners to
manage their land in ways that provide ecological
benefits (e.g., carbon offsets or water filtration), are
examples of this strategy.
3. Protected Areas and Habitat Preservation
Establishing and maintaining protected areas, such as
national parks, wildlife reserves, and marine protected
areas, is a key strategy for conserving ecosystems and
biodiversity.
Corridors connecting fragmented habitats are essential to
allow species movement and genetic exchange, promoting
resilience and preventing biodiversity loss.
4. Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry
Practices such as agroforestry, organic farming, crop
rotation, and permaculture help maintain soil fertility,
reduce water use, and decrease reliance on chemical
inputs.
Sustainable forestry practices, including selective logging,
reforestation, and reduced-impact logging, ensure that
forests continue to provide timber and non-timber
resources without degrading the ecosystem.
5. Sustainable Fisheries and Marine Management
Implementing fishing quotas, establishing no-take zones,
and managing fishing seasons help protect fish populations
from overexploitation.
Sustainable fisheries aim to balance the economic needs of
fishing communities with the health of marine ecosystems.
Marine spatial planning is used to manage ocean use,
ensuring that activities like fishing, tourism, and oil
exploration do not harm marine ecosystems or conflict with
each other.
Watershed and River Basin Management
Managing freshwater resources at the watershed or river
basin level ensures that ecosystems and human water
needs are balanced. This includes protecting water sources,
managing land use to reduce pollution, and restoring
wetlands that filter water and prevent flooding.
Challenges in Sustainable Ecosystem
Management
1. Balancing Development and Conservation
Managing ecosystems sustainably often requires trade-
offs between short-term economic benefits (e.g.,
resource extraction) and long-term ecological health.
Finding the balance can be politically and economically
challenging.
2. Climate Change
Climate change poses a significant challenge to
sustainable management by altering ecosystems,
changing species distributions, and increasing the
frequency of extreme weather events.
Adaptation strategies, such as restoring coastal
mangroves to protect against rising sea levels and
storms, are becoming more critical.
3. Overexploitation and Resource Depletion
Human activities such as overfishing, deforestation,
and mining continue to push ecosystems toward
degradation. Regulating these activities in a way that
balances economic needs with ecological sustainability
is complex.
4. Policy and Governance
Effective sustainable management requires strong
policies, regulations, and enforcement. In many cases,
weak governance, corruption, or lack of political will
undermine sustainability efforts.
5. Public Awareness and Education
Raising awareness about the importance of ecosystems
and the need for sustainable management is essential
for building public support and compliance with
conservation initiatives.
Payment for Environmental
Services (PES)
Refers to a market-based conservation mechanism
where beneficiaries of ecosystem services compensate
landholders or resource stewards for managing land in
ways that secure or enhance those services.
The goal is to incentivize behaviors that protect or
improve environmental services, such as clean water,
biodiversity, carbon sequestration, or landscape
beauty.
PES schemes are designed to address the challenge of
externalities, where the benefits of environmental
conservation are public goods but the costs of
conservation fall on private individuals or communities.
Key Principles of PES:
1.Voluntary Transactions: Both the service
provider (landholder or community) and the
service buyer (government, private sector, NGOs)
enter into agreements willingly.
2.Conditionality: Payments are typically made
only if the service provider fulfills agreed-upon
actions, such as reforesting land, protecting
watersheds, or maintaining wildlife habitats.
3.Direct Linkage: There is a direct connection
between the payments made and the
environmental services provided, like a clean
river or biodiversity preservation.
4. Additionality: The services paid for must provide
additional environmental benefits beyond what would
have occurred without the payment
Examples of Environmental Services in PES:
Watershed Protection: Payments to upstream
landowners to manage their land in ways that ensure
downstream water users (such as cities or farmers)
receive clean water.
Carbon Sequestration: Programs that pay landowners
to maintain forests or plant trees to absorb carbon dioxide,
contributing to climate change mitigation
Biodiversity Conservation: Payments made to
conserve habitats for endangered species or promote the
sustainable management of ecosystems.
PES Models:
Government-led PES: Governments provide
incentives or subsidies to landowners to
preserve or manage ecosystems (e.g., Costa
Rica's national PES program)
Private-sector PES: Companies or individuals
pay for environmental services, such as
businesses paying for carbon credits or water
utilities paying for watershed conservation.
Hybrid PES: A combination of public and
private funding sources.
Benefits of PES:
Promotes sustainable land use and conservation
efforts.
Provides financial incentives to communities,
particularly in rural areas, for protecting natural
resources.
Helps address challenges such as deforestation,
water shortages, and biodiversity loss.
Challenges of PES:
Monitoring and Enforcement :-Ensuring that
environmental services are actually being
provided as promised is a critical issue.
Monitoring land use changes, biodiversity, or
water quality can be complex, costly, and time-
consuming.
High Transaction Costs:- Setting up,
managing, and monitoring PES schemes can
involve significant administrative costs, including
negotiating contracts, monitoring compliance,
and providing technical support to participants.
Ensuring Fairness and Equity:- PES programs
often target landowners, which can marginalize
poor or landless people who may rely on the
same ecosystems.
Additionally, indigenous communities may face
challenges in accessing PES payments due to
unclear land tenure rights.
Sustainability of Funding:- PES schemes
require long-term, sustainable sources of
funding, but many rely on short-term donor
funding or government budgets, which can be
unstable. Once the funding ends, the
environmental services may cease as well.
Additionality and Baseline Setting:- To ensure
that payments are truly incentivizing additional
environmental services, PES schemes must be able
to demonstrate that the activities would not have
occurred without the payments.
This can be hard to prove, especially when setting
a baseline for what would have happened without
the program
Leakage:- Leakage occurs when environmental
benefits in one area are offset by environmental
damage elsewhere. For example, forest protection
in one area might push deforestation to another
location, negating the positive effects of the PES
scheme.
Short-term Focus:- Many PES programs are designed
as short-term projects, but ecological processes often
take longer to deliver tangible benefits.
The temporary nature of PES programs can result in
only short-term conservation, with no long-term
ecological or social gains.
Cultural and Social Resistance:- Introducing a market-
based mechanism for environmental services may
clash with traditional practices and values.
Some communities may view natural resources as
communal or sacred and might resist the idea of
"selling" ecosystem services.
Over-reliance on Market Mechanisms:- PES
schemes are based on market transactions,
but markets can fluctuate, and demand for
environmental services such as carbon
sequestration or water quality can change.
This market reliance might not always align
with conservation needs.
