HONEY BEE DISEASES AND ENEMIES

 Like all animals bees are subjected to diseases, attacks by parasites

and pests, and other phenomena endangering their health and life

Bee diseases are transmitted from one colony to another in two main
ways
 adult bees (robbing or consuming honey and/or pollen from
diseased colonies)
 re-use of contaminated combs (transferring diseased brood or
contaminated combs to healthy colony)

 Apiary hygiene is important

 Types of honeybee diseases

 Based on the etiological agents: honeybee diseases can be classified

Bacteria - American foul brood (AFB) and European foul brood (EFB)

Fungi - Chalk brood and stone brood

Protozoa - Nosema and Amoeba

Virus - paralysis, sac brood, etc

Parasitic mites – Varroasis, Acarin disease

 Based on their hosts : two types:

1. adult honeybee diseases

Nosema, Amoeba, Paralysis, Varroasis and Acarine disease

2. brood honeybee diseases

AFB, EFB, Chalk brood, stone brood and sac brood.

• The most virulent diseases at present are those that affect the brood one.

Means of Transmission

Feeding

Swarming

Robbing

Drifting

Contaminated equipments

Exchanging brood combs or frames between healthy and diseased colonies

 Brood diseases
1. American foul brood (AFB)

• is a serious bacterial disease caused by the spore forming bacterium

Paenibacillus larvae ssp larvae (formerly classified as Bacillus larvae).

• The pathogen is a rod-shaped, spore forming, flagellate, motile bacillus which is

highly resistant to heat, desiccation and disinfectants.

Distribution: not present in S. America, sub-sahran Africa and Asia

Transmission: The infection can be transmitted by;

 Nurse bee

Wax contaminated with the spores

Equipment’s contaminated with spores

Robber bees
Drifting bees

 Swarms issuing from an infected colony

 The beekeeper exposing contaminated honey to other bees

Clinical Symptoms

The characteristic disease signs of AFB include some or all of the

following:
 Uneven or 'Pepper-pot' brood pattern

 Sunken, greasy or perforated, darkened cell cappings

 Roping, sticky larval remains when drawn out with a matchstick

 Dark "scales", which are difficult to remove from cells

Dead larvae are brown or black colored.

Larvae that die from AFB lay in upright position after capping.

A pupa that has died in capped cell shows a fine threadlike tongue or
mouthparts projecting in the center of the cell.
Diagnosis

Ropiness test - A match stick is inserted into the suspected cell, twist and
then withdrawn slowly;

• If AFB is present the larvae remains will be drown out as a brown mucus
thread or rope.

Milk test - macerate the dead body of the larvae on a glass slide by adding
two drops of milk.

• If positive for AFBD it forms a firm curd with in 1 minute, if negative

may form the curd after 10 minutes.

Bacterial culture - a few drops of emulsified larval remains cultured on

blood agar then identify for the bacteria.
Treatment and Control

• Chemotherapy can kill vegetative forms but does not destroy spores.
so immerse the hive equipment's in a boiling caustic soda, ethylene
oxide.

• For commercial beekeepers like Sodium sulphatiazole, Terramycin

(0.25-0.4mg) in 5 liter of concentrated sugar syrup (applied as a dust
or in sugar syrup).

• Good management procedures by: Eliminating suspected colonies

and burning infested comb.

• Use of resistant strains.

2. European foul brood disease (EFB)

• EFB is closely related to AFB in symptom and caused by gram

positive, non spore forming bacterium Melissococcus pluton
(Streptococcus pluton).

The disease remains in a vegetative state all the time and can remain
viable for up to 3 years.

The bacterium is susceptible to antibiotics only when the disease is

multiplying in the bee larvae.

EFB is highly contagious with all stages of larvae development

susceptible to infection.

• The bacteria affect only young larvae that are in uncapped cells.
Transmission

contaminated beekeeping materials

feeding infected pollen and honey

Bees

 EFB is highly contagious but infection may remain without visible

signs for a long period.

 Sudden outbreaks of disease can occur - these probably result from a

change of seasonal conditions and other stress related factors such as:
Nutritional deficiencies

Cold weather
 Signs of the disease

• Larvae are mostly affected in the unsealed, curled up stage, although in severe cases

brood of all ages may be affected.

Larvae die usually within 1-days prior to being sealed.

Diseased larvae collapse and become dislodged from their normal position in the cells.

Their color changes from pearly white to yellow and finally, yellowish brown. After two

to four weeks, larvae dry up to form a brown scale which can easily be removed from the

cell.

The odor of infected brood varies from odorless to sour or foul, depending on the

secondary invading bacteria present.

• Dead brood probed with a matchstick usually has a watery consistency,
although the sealed brown pupae may exhibit a slightly ropy consistency.

• Worker bees may remove and discard diseased larvae as they die and thus a
colony may show few signs of disease.

Diagnosis

• bacterial culture of suspected larval tissue is a definitive diagnostic method.

Infected larva Healthy larva
Treatment and control
• Infected colonies can be treated with antibiotics such as Streptomycin,
Terramycin (0.5-1 mg in 0.5 liter of sugar syrup).

• However, antibiotics can contaminate honey, so they must be used in

accordance with directions.

Good management practice:

• Manipulative treatment: Destruction of diseased colonies

• Chemotherapy: Sterilization of the combs using chemicals like ethylene

oxide (Fumigation).

NB: American and European are not geographical terms – both occur in
Europe and America. Foul refers to the smell associated with the
3. Chalk brood

• Caused by a fungus Ascosphera apis.

• The name is derived from the chalky appearance of the dead brood
with mummification of sealed brood.

• The fungal spores are ingested with the brood food. The spore
germinate in the gut, the growth of the fungus cause the death of the
brood.

• The fungus will compete with the larva for food ultimately causing it
to starve, and then the fungus will consume the rest of the larvae body.

• The disease is enhanced by a number of factors including high

moisture content, colony stress and cool temperature.
Transmission
• Ingestion of the spores together with feeds

• Exchanging equipment and bees

• feeding of bees contaminated honey or pollen

• using contaminated gloves

Symptoms

• An affected larva becomes overgrown by fluffy, cotton like mycelia and

swells to the size of the brood cell

• larva dries into a hard shrunken, white, chalklike mummy - thus the name
chalkbrood

• Mummies can sometimes be removed from brood cells by tapping the comb
This easy removal of larval remains also differentiates chalkbrood
from other brood diseases

Dead larvae in cells that have turned white due to fungal growth
• Mummies are moved from the infected cells or hive floor by nurse
bees to the hive entrance
Diagnosis

• Generally made on the basis of white, black, or gray mummies at the hive
entrance, on the bottom board, or in sealed and unsealed brood cells.

• Microscopy: Staining of slides with Lactophenol Cotton Blue Stain (LPCB).

• The presence of ascomata in samples is diagnostic for the disease

Treatment and control

• no effective chemical treatment but Amphotracin B can be an option.

• Good management and sanitation

• Keeping the hive warm, because chilling is enhancing the occurrence of the
disease

• Sterilization of combs and materials by fumigating with ethylene oxide

 5. Stone brood

• present worldwide
• A fungal disease caused by; Aspergillus flavus,
1. A. fumigatus,
2. A. niger
• It attacks the brood as well as adult bees. and transforms the larva into a hard, stone-like
colored object which is found lying in open cells
• Transmission

The infection is oral by feeding and also the fungus can develop on the surface of the
bees body
The disease is spread outside the hive by drifting, robbing or swarming honey bees.

Beekeepers also transmit the disease through their beekeeping tools or by moving
 Symptoms

• fungus grows rapidly and forms a characteristic whitish-yellow collar like ring
near the head end of the infected larva.

• After death, infected larva becomes hardened and quite difficult to crush -
hence the name stone brood.

• The disease causes mummification of the infected brood.

• Mummies are hard and solid, not sponge-like as in the case of chalk brood.

• At the beginning the larvae appear white and fluffy, then they become yellow
(A. flavus) or greenish brown (A. fumigatus)

• spores are found most abundantly near the head of the affected brood.
• Behavioural changes are observed in adult bees which include agitation,
weakness, paralysis, inability to fly away from the hive and morphological
alterations with distended abdomen and subsequent mummification
 Diagnosis

• Gross symptoms (through identifying the gross lesion), but positive identification
of the fungus requires its cultivation in the laboratory.

Zoonoses

The fungi that cause the disease might affect humans.

For this reason it is advisable to destroy the heavily infected combs and honey that
comes from infected hives should not be sold for human consumption.

It is believed that the fungus causing stone brood can trigger respiratory diseases in
both humans and animals.
Treatment and Control

There is no chemical treatment for Stonebrood.

Thus, prevention is the only solution to have healthy, stonebrood free

colonies.

The hives and all the beekeeping tools must be clean so as to prevent
infestation.

The dead larvae must be removed

The hives have to be well ventilated and equipped with new frames
that also have a new foundation.
 4. Sac brood

• Viral disease of the larval stage of the honeybees caused by Morator aetatulas.

• Sacbrood disease can become apparent after bees are stressed by beekeeping
management practices such as re-queening or moving hives.

Signs
• Larvae affected by the virus die after the cell has been capped and larvae fail to pupate
after four days.
• Affected larvae develop a sac of liquid at the anal end, giving the characteristic
appearance of sac like structure.
• Head of infected larva lifted toward top of cell like a canoe
• The affected larvae change color starting at the mouth parts from white through to
yellow and dark brown.

• The brown larvae may dry to form wrinkled, brittle scales which are easily removed
from the cell.

The first appearance of sac brood should not be confused with American foulbrood

disease.

The distinguishing characteristics are that the brown larvae will not ‘rope’ as with

American foulbrood disease and the beekeeper should test for ‘rope’ effect.

• Where American foulbrood and sac brood diseases occur in a hive at the same time, the
visual signs and ‘rope’ effect of American foulbrood disease may become less obvious.
Early Sac brood affected larvae with
raised mouth part and clear Late Sac brood affected larvae with raised
mouth part and became brown
 Transmission

Contaminated pollen, nectar or water.

Cross contamination by the beekeeper could spread the disease.

Bees ‘drifting’ from hive to hive, contaminated drinking water, contaminated

equipment and wind may also transmit the virus.

Honey bees act as a reservoir for the sac brood virus.

Viruses appear to accumulate in the hypopharyngeal gland of worker bees, and these
bees may transmit the infection to larvae through feeding.

Diagnosis

 Diagnosis is possible by using electron microscope and isolation and identification

Control and Prevention

Because sacbrood disease is caused by a virus, there is no method of

treating affected bees.

Re-queening hives showing persistent or severe signs of the disease is

recommended.

New queens should come from hives that show resistance to the disease.

Hygiene is important in limiting or preventing;

• Avoid introduction of bees and equipments from unknown sources

• Avoid exposing honeycombs and equipments for robbing.

• Regularly watch the colony for the signs of the disease

 Adult honeybee diseases
1. Nosema disease/Nosemosis

• caused by a spore-forming protozoan parasite called Nosema apis

• exist in all parts of Africa and known for its seriousity.

• affects adult bees including workers, drones and queens.

• The spores are ingested with food/water, and then they germinate to vegetative
form in the cells and again form spores. Then millions of spores are shed in to
the digestive tract and eliminated with faces.

• reduces bees ability to digest food properly and shortens the life of bees.
Symptoms

 Even though Nosemosis is a common disease of bees, it goes

unnoticed in the apiary but in high level of infestation one can see;

• crawling of bees (disoriented/paralyzed behavior)

• swollen bees especially distended abdomen

• sudden reduction of population internally or externally.

• dysentery marked by brown fecal marks in the comb.

• the affected gut is two times the size of normal gut and the color is
white instead of being light pinkish.

• Nurse bees stop their normal activities.

Dysentery on the comb Dysentery out side the hive
Diagnosis

• The hind gut (ventriculus) and digestive tract of diseased bees are
chalky white or milky white while healthy bees have amber or
translucent digestive tracts.

• Infection is best detected by the microscopic examination of

macerated abdominal tissue for the presence of spores.

• Confirmation is by microscopic examination (40x): bees are crushed

and examined abdominal tissue for white, rice-shaped spores/bodies.
Treatment and control

• Chemotherapy- antibiotic like Fumagillin/Fumagidin (anti protozoan)

have proven effect (with sugar syrup).
Con’t

• But Fumagillin does not affect spores of the nosema parasite so it

does not completely eliminate the disease from the colony (75-100mg
of Fumagillin in a gallon of syrup).

• Good management technique by keeping strong colonies with

vigorous queen.

• comb sterilization by disinfecting empty combs using formalin and

heating comb.
2. Amoeba

• Caused by a protozoan parasite Malpighamoeba mellificae.

• The cyst of the parasite is ingested with food and germinate in the
rectum.

• Then they migrate to the malpighian tubules (“kidney”) to multiply to

more cysts then migrate and return to the rectum and excreted though
faces.

• The infection seems to have no effect on the colony but serious when
concurrent with other infections and during wet seasons.

• Its combined effect with Nosema can kill the honeybees

Con’t

Symptoms
 Dysentery

 Bloating of abdomen

 Crawling around the hive

 Less population of adult bees

 Mode of transmission is by excreta, contaminated water and food.

Diagnosis

• is by microscopic examination-crushing the bees make wet smear and

look for ‘grainy circular cysts’.
Treatment and control

• Chemotherapy - no antibiotic yet known for its effectiveness.

• Do not require chemical treatments as it can be corrected by

management (feeding, hygiene, strengthening)

• Manipulative treatment through good management technique by;

 transferring colonies to non infected hive/comb,

 strengthening the colony,

 sterilizing of the combs using acetic acid or/and formalin,

3. Acarine Disease

• Caused by microscopic mite known as Acarapis woodii

• The mite enters the tracheae through spiracles and interferes with
breathing

• Numerous mites in the tracheae partially suffocate the bee and impair
its ability to fly

• Mature female mites leave the bee’s airway and climb out on other
bee, where they wait until they can transfer to a young bee.

• Once on a new bee they will move in to the airways and begin laying
eggs.
• It is suspected to be found in Ethiopia
Symptoms

• signs usually seen only when the infestation is high.

• dislocated legs and wings can be seen.

• Affected bees can’t fly but remain with extended wings.

• Suffering colonies have dwindling (diminished) populations,

• Infested adults may act irritated or disoriented.

• Weak adults may be found crawling aimlessly near the entrance of the
hive.

Diagnosis

• Diagnosis for tracheal mites generally involves the dissection of the

Con’t
• Cut the trachea parallely in to small rings of 1-1.5 mm.

• All of the discs in a glass bottle, boil by adding 10% KOH for 4-8
minutes and clean the tracheal discs with wire gauze.

• Put the disks in a small glass dish with drop of water and examine
under microscope (40x).

• Dark pouches in the trachea indicate the presence of the mite but the
trachea is transparent in the absence of the mite.

• Staining can also be used to appreciate the morphology.

Treatment and control

• Chemotherapy is the only effective way of controlling Acariasis. Like

formic acid (70%), chlorobenzionate.

• These are administered (1 part drug, 3 part powdered sugar) these

drugs usually disrupts the mites ability to identify the young bee and
some of the mites waiting to transfer to the new host will remain on
the original host.
Paralysis (CBPVD)
• Paralysis of honey bees is caused by Chronic bee paralysis virus.

• the virus affect the pupae that ends with death, and also the adult bees.

• It affects brain, nerve ganglia and the coordination center interacts.

Symptoms

• Clusters of bees shiver, as if there is chill.

• Fails to fly and often crawl on the ground and up grass stems.

• Often have bloated abdomen

Diagnosis

• Ideally, the diagnosis of this disease is made using serological techniques.

• Since this is beyond the capability of most laboratories, diagnosis is usually made

by observing symptoms in individual bees and, when possible, colony behavior

Varroa Disease/Varroasis

• caused by a mite called Varroa jacobsoni

• Varroa mites are external honeybee parasites that attack both the
adults and the brood, with a distinct preference for drone brood.

• attack the adult, pupa and larval bees.

• This mite can be seen by our naked eye; they are not microscopic.

• Usually a female varroa mite enter the cell before pupation and lay
egg and hatch there and released with young.

• Larvae of mite consume the pupae of bees, some pupae die and other
emerge with deformed body (wingless or legless).
Con’t

They are large enough to be seen with the unaided eye on the thorax
( most commonly), and on the bee's abdomen.

Their flattened shape allows them to hide between the bee's abdominal
segments.

 They are reddish brown in color.

They confused with the bee louse, but the bee louse has only six legs,
is more circular in shape, and is slightly larger.
Symptoms

• Adult bees with deformed wings, legs and abdomens are found at
the hive entrance.

• Mites can be seen as a small red or brown spot on the thorax or

abdomen of larvae or adult bees.

• Cells being uncapped and destroyed.

Diagnosis

• Gross examination of pupa for reddish colored mites.

• Paper technique – place a plane of sheet of paper on the floor of

suspected hive, spray /impregnated acaricides like amitraz after 5-10
min, you will find dead and unconscious mites on the sheet drooped
from the bees.

• Examination by using canning jar - collect about 50-100 workers bees

in a canning jar and spray them with ether or water for 2 seconds and
shake the treated bees vigorously for 10-30 seconds and this spray
will kill the test bees and any attached mite will fall from bees and
stick to the side of the jar where they can be counted.
Treatment and control

• There is no 100% knockdown treatment, however, if the disease

becomes serious and widely distributed dicofol, amitraz,
phenothiazine, folbex-R or even tobacco smoke can be used to
control vorroa mite.
• Usually drone broods are affected, cut the comb of drone capped
cells.
 Honey bee pests

• Honey bee pests are organisms that harm honey bee and their
products.

1. Ants

• Ants are great problems of tropics and sub tropical regions.

• They cause great damage in a honey bee in:

 Attacking and destroying the entire colony e.g. Black ants

 Causing structural damage by tunneling in the wood of bee hive

and nests.
 Competing for source of sugar e.g. wood ants.


Control of Ants

• keeping apiaries clean, i. e, free of debris

• Keeping the ground dry under hive stands.

• Destroying ant nests.

• Plastering an inner tube in cone shape form on the hive stand leg(s).

• Plastering the hive stand with cone shape smooth iron sheets.

• Placing the legs of hive stands in open tins filled with used engine oil

• Traditionally- spreading ash, kerosene, young leaves of Eucalyptus

globulus, tieing teff straw to legs of hive stands.
2. Wax moths

• Wax moths are serious pests of combs/wax, but not attack the bees
directly.

• a dark, warm and poorly ventilated rooms are most likely to be

damaged because it favors the reproduction of wax moths.

• Strong colonies always cast out the moths larvae out of the hive but
weaker colonies do not.

• So this is considered to be disease of poor management.

Two species of Wax moths

Greater wax-moth (Galleria mellonella)

 Lesser wax moth (Achoria grisella)

Con’t

• Both are very troublesome to beekeepers.

• Infection stage is the larval stage.

• Cause damage to combs, the hive body and on frames

• Small, newly hatched larvae enter hive through cracks

Adult Wax moth Larval Wax moth

Symptoms

• Pile of debris that

falls to the hive floor.

• Formation of silken
webs (funnels) along
the midrib of the
combs.
Treatment and control

• Keeping strong colonies and protect stored equipment's.

• Avoid empty unused comb from the hive.

• Providing bee adequate space - to allow bees to move freely.

• Apply chemicals to kill larvae and egg of moths like moth crystal/
paradichlorobenzene/ PDB.

• Biological - A bacterial disease, which attacks only wax moth larvae,

Bacillus thurigiensis, sprayed, and the larvae die after ingesting it.

• Physical treatments like-cooling (combs for 10 days at 2°C or 3

weeks at 2°C.) and heating (120 °F for 40 min).
3. Bee Lice (Braula Coeca)

Braula coeca, or bee-louse, is actually not a louse but a wingless fly that
feeds on honey.

No detrimental effect on adult bees has been attributed to the bee louse, but
its larvae can damage the appearance of honey comb.

Adult bee louse often are found on the heads of honey bee workers, drones,

and especially queens.

Bee lice are reddish-brown in color and regularly are misdiagnosed as varroa
mites, due to their similar appearance.

One notable difference useful as a field diagnosis to distinguish between

varroa mites (mites) and bee lice (insects) is the presence of six legs on the
Control

• There is a modicum of control

suggestions for the bee louse,
largely because it is not considered
a major pest.

• Identifying bee colonies suffering

from bee lice, blowing tobacco
smoke briefly through the hive
entrance.

• By the gentle smoke of tobacco,

the lice will fall down from the
bee
4. Small hive beetle (Aethina tumida)

• Adult SHB are reddish brown and about 1/4 inch long, roughly one-
third the length of an adult worker honey bee.

• Adult beetles can be found in brood cells, on the bottom board, or on

the inner cover.

• The eggs are laid in empty cells and are about half the size of honey
bee eggs.

• They feed on brood, pollen, and honey, then leave the hive, and
pupate in the soil close by.

• Honey that the larvae have fed upon becomes discolored and frothy
and smells like fermented fruit.
Con’t

Larvae of Aethina tumida

Adult Aethina tumida

Egg of Aethina tumida

Symptoms

• Larvae defecate in honey and the honey becomes discolored from

the feces.

• Activity of the larvae causes fermentation and a frothiness in the

honey; the honey develops a characteristic odor of decaying
oranges.

• Heavy infestations cause bees to abscond; some beekeepers have

reported the rapid collapse of even strong colonies

 Soil insecticide treatments used as

control strategy. Fermented honey

 5. Wasps

• social insects like bees.

 Yellow banded brown wasp (Vespa Orientals)

 Golden wasp (Vesp auraria)

 Large Black wasp (Vesp magnifica)

• They are predaceous by nature

• Catch bees from blossoms or at the entrance of a hive

• Wasps macerate bees and feed their young ones

Control

An effective control measure of this pest is unknown.

6. Spiders

• Usually construct webs on hive body, landing boards & on flowering

plants and catch many bees

• When bees are in their webs they kill by on & off attack coming closer to
bees.

• Once the bee dies they suck the haemolymph

• black and the toughest spider usually produce major nuisance on apiary.

Control
• Continuous supervision of apiaries and regularly cleaning the places where
the spiders' web are constructed.

• Killing and destroying the whole webs of the spiders.

Predators

1. BIRDS

• Prey upon many insects [honeybees]

• Serious when they attack apiary in flocks

2. HONEY BADGER “Shelemmetmat”

Catch adult bees outside the bees' hive.

It is nocturnal in nature.

Have strong claws and jaws.

Puts its tail into the beehive & swirl it all

round.

Scoop out the combs & eat the honey or the

brood.

Control methods

• Making strong fence (made of stone, barbed

wire
3. Lizards

 Amphibians (Reptiles), which predate & eat on honeybees

 live in cracks of buildings & houses

 Catch the bees, weaken the colony.

4. Toads
• Toads are considered as honeybee pests

• Different species exist & interact with bees in the country

• They cause more damage in hotter areas of the country

• Live in the cracks & premises of buildings, stones houses

Control

 Place the colony on hive stands about knee height

 Regular supervision & killing the toads

 Honey bee poisoning

• Honey bees are susceptible to many of the chemicals used for

agriculture to control and prevent diseases and weeds

• In Ethiopia also bee poisoning in coffee growing, western and

southern Ethiopia is common and serious problem.

 Ways of contamination by poisons:

• When bees collect contaminated forage (food, water, etc).

• During contact with contaminated combs.

• During spraying: aerosol

Symptoms of poisoned bees

• Decrement in bee population at hive entrance and dead bees found at

the floor of hives.

• The colony become badly tempered, shivering, staggering, and

crawling bees may be seen similar to chronic bee paralysis virus
diseases (organophosphate poisoning)

• Returning foragers spin around/on the ground until they die and dead
bees usually have extended proboscis.

Diagnosis

• Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, history of the environment or

foraging sites plantation.
Factors affecting the severity of poisoning

• Formulation - e.g. powdered formulations usually contaminate large

amount of pollen than capsulated formulations.

• Application methods - e.g. areal application by using airplanes kills

bee soon. Rather ground application by tractors, man spray etc are
safe methods.

• Attractiveness of the sprayed flowers - some attractive high sugar

concentrated flowers are visited by large number of bees.

• Weather condition - bees forage at warm and fine temperature so

plants need to be treated during rainy time, night, and cold.
Minimizing honey bee poisoning

• Applying insecticides only when justified /when use of pesticides

over weigh the value of bees on honey and pollination

• Apply hazardous insecticides only when crops are not flower and do
not contain flowering weeds.

• Use of selected pesticides, formulations, time of day season/

application procedure.

• Close hives or move them away during spraying for 2-3 days and
operate a ‘spray warning scheme’ an agreement between the crop
owner and bee keeper to move the hive/colony/ close hive during
period of spraying.
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