Thyroid Gland

• It consists of two lobes, one on each side of the trachea (wind pipe), just below the
larynx or voice box. The two lobes are connected by a narrow band of tissue called the
isthmus. Internally, the gland consists of follicles, which produce thyroxine and
triiodothyronine hormones. These hormones contain iodine.
• About 93 percent of the active thyroid hormone is thyroxine, and most of the remaining
5 percent is triiodothyronine. Thyroid follicles are made up of a central cavity filled with
a sticky fluid called colloid where gland stores hormone.
• Calcitonin is also secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This hormone
opposes the action of the parathyroid glands by reducing the calcium level in the blood.
If blood calcium becomes too high, calcitonin is secreted until calcium ion levels
decrease to normal.
• Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism that involves
the amount of circulating hormone, hypothalamus, and adenohypophysis.
• If there is an iodine deficiency, the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This stimulates the
anterior pituitary to secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid gland to
increase in size in a vain attempt to produce more hormones. But it cannot produce more
hormones because it does not have the necessary raw material, iodine. This type of thyroid
enlargement is called goiter.
• The release of T3 and T4 from the thyroid gland is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone
(TSH).
• Low blood levels of T3 and T4 stimulate the release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
from the hypothalamus, which triggers secretion of TSH from the anterior pituitary. In turn, TSH
stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete T3 and T4. The levels of TRH, TSH, T3, and T4 are regulated
by a negative feedback system in which increasing levels of T3 and T4 decrease the production
and secretion of TSH.
• The thyroid hormones, T3 and T4, are often referred to as metabolic hormones because their
levels influence the body’s basal metabolic rate, the amount of energy used by the body at rest.
Adequate levels of thyroid hormones are also required for protein
synthesis and for fetal and childhood tissue development and growth.
They are especially critical for normal development of the nervous
system both in utero and in early childhood, and they continue to
support neurological function in adults.
When levels of T3 and T4 hormones are excessive, this effect accelerates
the heart rate, strengthens the heartbeat, and increases blood
pressure. Because thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, heat
production, protein synthesis, and many other body functions.
• The normal functioning of thyroid gland stimulates growth in childhood. It takes active part in
the deposition and distribution of fat, function of mensuration and development of fetus in
pregnancy.
• Dietary iodine is required for the synthesis of T3 and T4. But for much of the world’s population,
foods do not provide adequate levels of this mineral, because the amount varies according to
the level in the soil in which the food was grown, as well as the irrigation and fertilizers used.
• Dietary iodine deficiency can result in the impaired ability to synthesize T3 and T4, leading to a
variety of severe disorders. When T3 and T4 cannot be produced, TSH is secreted in increasing
amounts.
• A goiter is only a visible indication of the deficiency. Other iodine deficiency disorders include
impaired growth and development, decreased fertility, and prenatal and infant death.
Moreover, iodine deficiency is the primary cause of preventable mental retardation worldwide.
Applied Physiology
• Neonatal hypothyroidism (cretinism) is characterized by cognitive deficits, short stature, and
sometimes deafness and muteness in children and adults born to mothers who were iodine-
deficient during pregnancy. After puberty, myxedema i.e. collection of body fluid in connective
tissue. Mental and physical lethargy, puffiness of face, frog like voice, loss of hair, cold intolerance
etc.
• Inflammation of the thyroid gland is the more common cause of low blood levels of thyroid
hormones, hypothyroidism, the condition is characterized by a low metabolic rate, weight gain,
cold extremities, constipation, reduced libido, menstrual irregularities, and reduced mental
activity.
• Reduced metabolism. It can result in symptoms such as fatigue, intolerance of cold temperatures,
low heart rate, weight gain, reduced appetite, poor memory, depression, stiffness of the muscles.
• Hyperthyroidism, elevated blood level of thyroid hormones leads to an increased metabolic rate,
excessive body heat and sweating, diarrhea, weight loss, tremors, bulging eyes and increased
heart rate.
• Calcitonin is released in response to a rise in blood calcium levels. It appears to have
a function in decreasing blood calcium concentrations by decreasing calcium
absorption in the intestines and increasing loss in the urine.
• Under secretion of calcitonin, a hormone produced by the thyroid gland, is not
typically associated with major health problems. Calcitonin plays a role in lowering
blood calcium levels by inhibiting bone resorption (the breakdown of bone tissue)
and increasing calcium excretion by the kidneys. However, its role in calcium
regulation is less critical than that of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and vitamin D.
When calcitonin secretion is low, there are usually no significant clinical symptoms
because other mechanisms, such as PTH and vitamin D, can compensate to
maintain calcium balance in the body. However, in certain bone-related conditions,
such as Paget's disease, calcitonin may be used therapeutically to help regulate
bone turnover.
Adrenal Gland
• It is located on top of each of kidneys weight 4 in adult and
proportionately larger in children.
• The hormones they produce affect metabolism, blood sugar regulation,
blood pressure, and many other essential functions. It is composed of
two microscopically and functionally distinct parts the cortex (outer
yellow brown) and the medulla (inner grey).
• The cortex produces steroid hormones including glucocorticoids
(cortisol), mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), and sex corticoids
(androgens).
• The medulla produces the catecholamines, epinephrine, and
norepinephrine and small amounts of dopamine.
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), secreted by the anterior
pituitary gland, primarily affects the release of glucocorticoids and
adrenal androgens by the adrenal gland and, to a much lesser extent,
also stimulates aldosterone release.
• The sympathetic nervous system regulates the secretion of
epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla.
• Aldosterone hormone helps to maintain the body’s salt and water balance,
which is important for maintaining blood pressure. Aldosterone helps the
kidney to conserve salt when it is needed. It acts in the kidney to cause sodium
and water to be retained, and potassium to be lost.
• Cortisol, also known as the body’s ‘natural steroid’. This hormone is involved in
the response to illness and also helps to regulate body metabolism. Cortisol is
released during the ‘stress response.’
• Cortisol stimulates glucose production to help to maintain blood glucose levels.
Cortisol also has anti-inflammatory effects.
• Androgens play role in early development of the male sex organs in childhood,
and are important for the normal onset of female body hair following puberty.
• Adrenal catecholamines, epinephrine, and norepinephrine are
involved in executing the fight-or-flight response of the sympathetic
nervous system. They increase blood pressure, increased heart rate,
blood pressure, breathing rate, dilated pupils in the eye, and looking
flushed or pale, increase serum glucose and decreases insulin
secretion.
Applied Physiology
• Excess aldosterone causes high blood pressure (hypertension), which
can be resistant to conventional blood pressure control tablets.
• Some studies have suggested that hyperaldosteronism may account
for up to 5% of all people with high blood pressure and an even
higher proportion (up to 20%) of those who have difficult to control
hypertension.
• In rare cases, the adrenal glands can become either overactive or underactive.
The two main glucocorticoid-related disorders resulting from these are
Cushing's syndrome (overactive) and Addison's disease (underactive).
• Thinning or easy bruising of the skin, purple or red stretch marks (‘striae’),
truncal obesity, diabetes, psychiatric disturbances, high blood pressure, muscle
weakness (especially the large proximal muscles like the thighs), osteoporosis,
excessive facial hair and irregular periods in women. It can also result in growth
failure in children.
• Addison's disease or primary adrenal insufficiency, is due to underactive
adrenal glands and symptoms include low blood pressure, fatigue, weight loss,
anorexia, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, salt craving and low blood sugar.
The loss of secondary sex characteristics is more likely to occur in women.
• Phaeochromocytoma occur due to the release of excess amounts of
catecholamines. This can lead to high blood pressure, headaches,
sweating, tremors and fast heart rate. Most of the times, tumors are
discovered incidentally when people undergo scans for other reasons,
although some may be linked with conditions that run in families.
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