Introduction

• Definition

 Research is the systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data

in order to increase our understanding of the phenomenon about which we are
concerned or interested, with the ultimate goal of solving a particular problem.

 Through research it is possible to identify

 Identifying priority problems
 Designing and evaluating polices and program

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 Intro….

Characteristics of research
 It demands a clear statement of the problem.

 It requires clear objectives and a plan

 It builds on existing data, using both positive and negative findings.

 New data should be systematically collected and analyzed to answer the original
research objectives

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 intro….

Desired attributes of research

• Timeliness

• Dynamic

• Context related

• Reliable

• Unbiased
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 Types of Research

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

1. application of research study

2. objectives in undertaking the research

3. inquiry mode employed

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Based on application

1. Pure( basic) research

• involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses.

• The knowledge produced is added of the existing body of research methods

2. Applied research

• is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation,

administration and understanding of a phenomenon.

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 Based on objective

• The three general purposes of research are:

 Exploration
 Description
 Explanation

Note: a given study can have more than one of these purposes.

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 Based on objective

1. Exploratory Research

• Usually conducted when relatively little is known about the

phenomenon under study

• The subject of study is itself relatively new and unstudied

• The researcher explores the topic in order to become familiar with it

and to gain ideas and knowledge about it.
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 Based on objective….

2) Descriptive Research
• Conducted to numerically to describe some phenomenon.

• Descriptive studies summarize the characteristics of an event.

• The ultimate purpose is to formulate these descriptions into

conceptual categories.

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Descriptive Research…

• Descriptive studies seek to accurately describe current or past phenomena to

answer questions such as: e.g.
 What is the absentee rate for ANC follow up?
 What is the success rate for particular treatment?
 What is the dropout rate on particular immunization programme?

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 Based on objective…….....
3) Explanatory (analytic) research

• Seeks to explain the reasons behind a particular occurrence by discovering

causal relationships.

• Answers questions of “Why” and “what will be”

Example

What factors might account for the high dropout rate on a particular
immunization programm ?
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 Based on inquiry mode

1. Structured approach:
is usually classified as quantitative research.
2. Unstructured approach
to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research.

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 Health Research

• Is a research whose effort is to address health and health related

problems and come up with better solutions to mitigate the prevailing

problem.

• Different types of health research, vary in their focus.

• Each plays a different role in overall health development.

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 Health Systems Research (HSR)

• Health system is defined as-“All the organizations, people and actions whose

primary intent is to promote, restore or maintain health.”(WHO-2000)

• Health system includes:

 different levels of public health care services

 district council, district development committee and village development committee

 Private sectors.

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Conti……

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Problem Identification
What is a problem?
• Problem is a gap between the real and the desired or
• Problem is a contradiction between principle and practice
Sources of Research Problems
• Observation
• Literature reviews
• Professional conferences
• Experts

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problem identification……..

• Researchers choose the topics that they study based on:

Interest
Problem solving (having motivation to solve a particular
problem)
Previous research
Theory

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problem identification……..

• The problem should be researchable

• It should contribute to new knowledge

• There must be appropriate method available to investigate the

problem (i.e. consider participant, ethical implication, time & money
constraints)

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 conti….

Prioritizing research problems…

• In general, whether a problem requires research depends on three conditions:

1. Perceived difference or discrepancy b/n what exists and the ideals or

planned situation

2. The reason(s) for this difference should be unclear

3. There should be more than one possible answers to the question

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Criteria for prioritizing problems for research

1) Relevance
• How large or widespread is the problem?

• Who is affected?

• How severe is the problem?

• Who considers it as a problem

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 cont….

2) Avoidance of duplication
• Has the problem been investigated before?
3) Feasibility
consider
• How complex is the problem?
• Resources needed to carry out the study?
• Is enough time available?
• Getting technical assistance?
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Criteria for prioritizing…

4) Political acceptability
• Change is often political and can lead to resistance
5) Applicability
• Will the recommendations of the research be applied?
6) Urgency of the data needed
• How urgently are the results needed for decision making?
• Which research should be done first and which can be done later?
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 cont…

7) Ethical acceptability

• Is there any possibility of inflicting harm on others while carrying

out the research?

• How acceptable is the research to those who will be studied?

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Scales for rating research topics(problems
selection)

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 problem identification…….

Problem analysis

• A systematic analysis of the problem is crucial to:

1. Pool knowledge on the problem

2. Clarify the problem
3. Determine the focus and scope of the research

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 problem analysis steps

Step 1: Clarify the viewpoints of managers

health care workers and

researchers in relation to the problem

Step 2: Further specify and describe the core problem

Step 3: Analyze the problem

step 4: Formulating the problem statement

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 Step 3: Analyze the problem

• Step 3.1: Write down the core problem as defined in step 2

• Step 3.2:Brainstorm on possible causes or factors contributing to the

problem

• Step 3.3: Identify further contributing factors

• Step 3.4: Attempting to organize related factors together into larger

categories, and develop your final draft of the diagram
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 step 4 Formulating the problem
statement
• A problem statement is a nothing well detailed description of the
problem
• A problem statement is the initial step before undertaking or
venturing into any kind of research

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 Problem statement cont’d....

• It is necessary to formulate a good and effective problem

• to ensure that the research is successful

• specific and focus on one particular issue

• would be restrictive and would express one major idea

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 Importance of problem statement

• Is foundation for further development of research proposal

• Makes it easier to find information and reports of similar studies from

which our study design can benefit.

• Enables us to systematically point out why the proposed research on

the problem should be undertaken and what you hope to achieve
with the study results.
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Information should be included
in problem of statement
• A brief description of nature of the problem

• Major factors may influence the problem

• A brief description of any solutions that have been tried in the past to
solve the problem.

• A description of type of information expected from the current study

and how it can solve the problem (justification)
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 Literature Review

• is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the published and

unpublished work from secondary sources of data in the areas of
specific interest to the researcher.
• A literature review has a number of functions
 Bring clarity and focus to your research problem
Improve your methodology
Broaden your knowledge base in your research area
Contextualise your findings

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 Procedures for reviewing the literature

There are five steps involved in conducting

a literature review:
 search for existing literature in your area of

study;
 review the literature selected;

 develop a theoretical framework;

 develop a conceptual framework;

 writing up the literature reviewed

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 1) Search for existing literature

• Start with
 At least some idea of the broad subject area and of the problem you
wish to investigate,
The latest issue, examine its contents to see if there is relevant to
research problem
Reading the abstract.

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 What are the possible sources of information?

• Individuals, groups, and organizations

• Published information (books, articles, indexes, abstract of journals);

• Unpublished information (other research proposals in related fields,

reports, records, computer data bases)

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2) Review the literature selected

 Reading them critically to pull together themes and issues that are
associated.
 If you do not have a theoretical framework or themes in mind to
start with, use separate sheets of paper for each article or book.

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3. Develop a theoretical framework

• Discover that the problem you wish to investigate has its roots in a
number of theories that have been developed from different
perspectives
for example
Germ theory microorganism diseases
microorganism TB
Environment theory environment diseases
pure air TB

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Life style Diseases

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4) Develop a conceptual framework

• Conceptualization is mental process of organizing one's observations

and experiences into meaningful and coherent wholes.
• It is diagrammatic representation of philosophical concerns, theories,
and methodological approaches toward scientific inquiry that
characterize a particular discipline.
• It is the diagram that identify and illustrate the relationships among
factors that influence outcome.

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The conceptualization stages

1. Determine the research purpose

2. Select specific research topic

3. Identify relevant theories and literature related to the topic

4. Specify the meaning of the concepts and variables to be studied

(operationalization)

5. Formulate general hypotheses or research questions

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 Importance of a conceptual
framework
• Articulates the pathways by which an intervention is expected to
cause the desired outcomes
• Provides evaluator with specific elements to assess

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• Conceptual framework to assess the magnitude of mortality from
Tuberculosis.

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 variables and concepts

Concepts
• Term ‘concept’ (also referred as ‘construct’)refers to end product of
“conceptualization”.
• Concept could be a word or complex set of events or ideas referred by
the word.
• Concept can be word or symbol used to represent a meaningful whole
.

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 concept……
• highly subjective as their understanding varies
• may not be measurable.
• In a research study, it is used should be operationalized in
measurable terms
• Measurability is the main difference between a concept and a
variable.

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 Concept vs Reality

• Facts do not speak for themselves or stand out.

• They are limited by the creation of conceptual and perceptual

frameworks and by measurement techniques.

• Concepts are not completely arbitrary ; they must match with reality .

• Disagreements arise about whether reality is always exist or we

create reality by using concepts?
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 variables and concepts….

variables
• A characteristic of a person, object or phenomenon which can take
on different values
• A central idea in research.
• Variable is a concept that varies.
• Anything (concept/term) that can take on differing or varying values.
• Variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type.

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 Types of variables
 Independent variable is the cause supposed to be
responsible for bringing about change/s in a
phenomenon or situation.
Dependent variable is the outcome of the change/s
brought about by changes in an independent variable

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 HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis = Hypo + thesis

‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification
‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of a problem
• offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and
based on some rationale
• confirmation or rejection on empirical grounds
• are thus tentative statements that should either be acknowledged or
rejected by means of research

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 NATURE OF HYPOTHESIS
• It is conceptual in nature
• It is a verbal statement in a declarative form
• It has the empirical referent
• is future oriented
• It is the pivot of a scientific research

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 hypothesis….
Advantages of stating hypotheses include:
• Forces us to think more deeply and specifically about the possible outcomes of
the study
• Enables us to make specific predictions based on prior evidence or theoretical
argument
• Helps to clarify whether we are or aren’t investigating a relationship
Disadvantages of stating hypotheses include:
• May lead to a bias on the part of the researcher
• In some studies, it would be presumptuous to predict what findings
would be
• Focusing on the hypothesis could prevent the researcher from seeing
other phenomena that might be important to the study
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
HYPOTHESIS
• Is in agreement with the observed facts
• Does not conflict with any law of nature
• Is stated in the simplest possible term
• Permits of the application of deductive reasoning
• Shows very clear verbalization

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 HYPOTHESIS VS QUESTION

• The Hypothesis is subject to test

• a hypothesis represents a declarative statement of the relations
between two or more variables
• Question implies an interrogative statement that can be answered by
data
• Question poses a relationship between two or more variables but
phrases the relationship as a question

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cont….

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 summary
1. Theory plays a crucial role in most research projects. Having an
understanding of the importance of theory, and of the particular
theories to be used in your research is an important element of the
research process.
2. Developing your conceptual framework is also an important stage of
the research process. Undertaking this process will allow you to clarify
the important concepts within your study, their relationships to each
other, and their measurement.

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 Reference

• WHO , Health research methodology, A guide for training in research

methods, Second edition, 2004
• Introduction to Health Services Research Lynda Burton, ScD Johns
Hopkins University
• Dahlia K. Remler and Gregg G. Van Rayzin , Research Methods In
Practice , SAGE ,London , 2010.
• Michael H. Walizer and Paul L Wienir, Research Methods And Analysis-
Searching For Relationships, Harper & Row Publishers , London , 2012
• Getu DeguTegbar Yigzaw Research Methodology Lecture note for
Health Science Students University of Gondar
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