Gastrointestinal physiology

For Medical Laboratory Students

(Regular-Year II)

By Solomon Ejigu E.(BSc, MSc in Medical Physiology)

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 Objectives of the chapter

 Explain how the gastrointestinal tract is structured

 Explain nervous control and endocrine control of the gastrointestinal
system
 Explain information related to motility

12/11/2024 SEE 2
 Digestive System
 The gastrointestinal tract (GI tract), is a long tube passing through the body.
The tube has muscular walls lined with epithelium and is closed off by a
skeletal-muscle sphincter at each end
 The digestive system consisting of the digestive tract (GIT) and accessory
organs
 The alimentary canal (GIT) is composed of the organs mouth, pharynx,
esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus
 Accessory digestive organs – teeth, tongue and glandular organs, such as
the salivary glands, liver, and pancreas

 The primary function of the GI tract is to move nutrients, water, and

electrolytes from the external environment into the body s internal
environment
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 The food we eat is mostly in the form of macromolecules, such as proteins
and complex carbohydrates, so our digestive systems must secrete powerful
enzymes to digest food into molecules that are small enough to be absorbed
into the body.
At the same time, however, these enzymes must not digest the cells of the GI
tract itself (autodigestion). If protective mechanisms against autodigestion
fail, we may develop raw patches known as peptic ulcers [peptos, digested]
on the walls of the GI tract

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 Functions of gastrointestinal Tract

• Ingestion: taking materials into the digestive tract

• Propulsion: swallowing and peristalsis
– Peristalsis – waves of contraction and relaxation of muscles in the organ
walls
• Mechanical digestion: chewing, mixing, and churning food
• Chemical digestion: catabolic breakdown of food with the help of enzymes
• Absorption: movement of nutrients from the GI tract lumen in
to the blood or lymph
• Secretion: release of water, acids, enzymes, buffers, and salts

• Defecation: elimination of indigestible solid wastes

Basically four functions [Digestion, absorption , secretion and motility] to
counteract the functional challenges of GIT (Autodigestion, mass balance:
matching fluid input with output and repelling foreign invaders) 6
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 Layers of the GIT
1. Mucosa: Inner layer of the luminal surfaces
- protection, secretion & absorption
2. Submucosa: blood vessels, lymph, nerve plexuses
- necessary for motility + secretion
3. Muscularis externa : contains circular & Longitudinal
smooth muscle, mix and propel the chyme
Circular : Contraction causes a decrease in diameter of the
lumen of the GI tract
Longitudinal : Contraction causes shortening of a segment
of the GI tract
4. Serosa: outer most protective layer, consists of CT
• Secretes a slippery fluid that lubricates and prevents
friction

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 Receptors of the GIT
• Mechano- ,osmo- and chemo receptors respond to stretch and
pH, presence of substrate, and end products of digestion
respectively
• They initiate reflexes that:
– Activate or inhibit digestive glands
– Mix lumen contents and move them along

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 Innervation of the GI tract

1. Extrinsic NS
• originate outside the digestive tract and innervate the various
digestive organs
= parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems
a. Parasympathetic nervous system
• Excitatory on the functions of the GI tract
• Promotes digestive & absorptive processes

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 b. Sympathetic nervous system
• Inhibitory on the functions of the GI tract
• Slows processes
2. Intrinsic NS
• Lie entirely within the digestive tract wall
=enteric nervous system
• Coordinates and relays information from the
parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems to the GI
tract
• Controls motility and secretion
• Shows local, intrinsic regulation

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 a. Myenteric plexus (Auerbach’s plexus)
• Primarily controls the motility of the GI smooth muscle

b. Submucosal plexus (Meissner’s plexus)

• Primarily controls secretion
• Types of Neurotransmitters: Several e.g., Ach, NE, E, NO
vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), etc.

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 GI Motility

o Motility in the GI tract serves two purposes: moving food from the
mouth to the anus and mechanically mixing food to break it into
uniformly small particles.
o This mixing maximizes exposure of the particles to digestive enzymes
by increasing their surface area. GI motility is determined by the
properties of the tracts smooth muscle and modified by chemical input
from nerves, hormones, and paracrine signals

A. Peristaltic (propulsive) movements:

• Consists of a progressive wave of strong contraction followed by relaxation
• The main stimulus to cause peristalsis is distension (stretch) of the gut wall.
 Propel or push the contents forward through the digestive tract
• Transit of food through the esophagus is rapid
• In the small intestine—the main site of digestion and absorption—the contents are
moved forward slowly
 allowing time for the breakdown and absorption of food 15
B. Mixing movements:

• Occurs due to local contractions taking place in SI segments

 Mixing food with the digestive juices (promote digestion of
the food)
 Facilitate absorption by exposing all parts of the intestinal
contents to the absorbing surfaces of the digestive tract

 The law of the gut movement always occurs from mouth-

to- anus unless pathological

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 Digestion
• Two parts:
1. Mechanical digestion:
• Is the physical grinding of food to smaller units without
altering their chemical composition.
• Helps to expose and increase the surface area for
enzymatic attacks
2. Chemical digestion:
• Is hydrolytic breakdown of nutrients (CHO, fat, protein
etc) by different chemical reactions into simpler forms.
• This processes changes the original composition of the
nutrient.

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 The Mouth (oral cavity)
• The entrance to the digestive tract
• Parts of the oral cavity: cheeks, lip, tongue, hard and soft
palate, teeth
• Is responsible for mechanical digestion of solid food by
mastication
Functions of chewing are:
• To grind and break food up into smaller pieces
– Facilitate swallowing
– Increase the food surface area on which salivary enzymes
will act
• To mix food with saliva
• To stimulate the taste buds

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 Saliva

• Three major pairs of salivary glands

a. Parotid glands (25%)
Secrete mainly serous watery fluid rich in ptyalin
b. Submandibular glands (70%)
Produce both serous and mucous fluid
c. Sublingual glands (~5%)
Secrete mainly thick mucous with little serous fluid
• Components:
– H2O (99.5%)
– Electrolytes(principally Na+, Cl-, and HCO3-), antibodies
(IgA) , lysozyme, amylase, thiocyanate, mucus..(0.5%)
– Total secretion = about 1-1.5 L/day
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 Saliva functions

a. Digestion: CHO-digestion begins in saliva . The enzyme

ptyalin breaks starch- to-maltose. Lingual lipase begins fat
digestion in the mouth.
b. Protection: has anti-microbial actions (contains IgA,
lysozyme & thiocyanate that kills microbes).
c. Involved in speech: Clear & fluent articulation is possible in
the presence of saliva.
d. Secretes HCO3- : neutralize acids in food as well as acids
produced by bacteria in the mouth, the neutral pH is good for
ptyalin action.
e. Lubrication: Mucus found in saliva facilitates moistening
and swallowing of food.
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 Control of Saliva Secretions
A. Parasympathetic fibers: causes copious secretion of saliva
(Cholinergic).
B. Sympathetic fibers: Causes small and insignificant secretion
which is viscous (Adrenergic).

Salivary reflex

• Sight, smell, and test or thinking of food  Receptors in oral

cavity or smell  Sensory fibers from the tongue to the
salivatory nuclei in MO  Parasympathetic fibers (act on
salivary glands)  increase salivary secretion.
 Salivation can also be controlled by higher centers like
hypothalamus which has nerve connections with salivatory
nuclei in the Medulla oblongata (MO)
 Higher centers like appetite area in the hypothalamus are
also involved in reflex control.

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 Phases of Salivary secretions

3-phases of salivary secretions include

1. Cephalic (brain) phase: triggered by thought, smell, or
sight of food
2. Oral phase: triggered by food that stimulate touch & test
receptors in the mouth
3. Gastric phase: triggered by substances which stimulate the
gastric mucosa (acids or sour tastes) in the stomach.

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 Swallowing reflex (Deglutition)

• Swallowing is an act of orderly propulsion of food from the

mouth to the stomach.

3-phases of swallowing reflex

1. Voluntary phase in the Oral cavity:

- the tongue rolls and pushes the chyme against the hard and
soft palate in the oral cavity and pushes it to the pharynx.
2. Pharyngeal phase (involuntary): Reflexes whose nuclei are
located in swallowing center of the MO, stimulate the
closure of the nasal and tracheal openings and cause
inhibition of respiration.

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 Steps:
a. The soft palate is pulled upward and closes the
nasopharynx.
b. The vocal cords are pulled together and narrow
c. The epiglottis moves upward and covers the larynx

d. This so called “primary peristalsis” in the pharynx starts

and pushes the bolus downward through the upper
esophageal sphincter

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3. Esophageal phase (involuntary):

• Upper esophageal sphincter closes and the bolus is pushed

down to the stomach.
• If the peristaltic contraction is not adequate to push the
bolus, then distention of the esophageal walls cause the so
called “secondary peristalsis” that is modified by enteric
nerves and strong enough to push the bolus to the stomach.
Secretion of the esophagus
Mucous glands that surround the esophagus secrete mucus that
provide lubrication and protection from gastric digestion
(HCl) that may arise from reflux of stomach contents.

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Stomach

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 The stomach, functions

 Storage (1-3 Liter)

 Mixing (soupy chyme)
 Secretion of intrinsic factor and other enzymes
 Secretes enzymes that begin protein digestion
 Has antiseptic actions (HCl) etc

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 Production of gastric juices in stomach

Cells Secretions
1. Parietal cells HCl + Intrinsic factor
2. Chief cells Pepsinogen (stimulated by
HCl)
3. Mucous cells mucous
4. G-cells Gastrin (at pyloric antrum)
5. D-cells Somatostatin
6. H-cells Histamine

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• When pepsinogen is first secreted, it has no digestive activity
However, as soon as it comes in contact with HCl, it is
activated to form active pepsin
• Pepsin functions as an active proteolytic enzyme in a highly
acid medium (optimum pH 1.8 to 3.5), but above a pH of
about 5 it has almost no proteolytic activity and becomes
completely inactivated in a short time.
• HCl is as necessary as pepsin for protein digestion in the
stomach

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• The substance intrinsic factor, essential for absorption of
vitamin B12 in the ileum, is secreted by the parietal cells
along with the secretion of HCl
• Enterochromaffin - like cells (ECL cells), secrete histamine.
• Gastrin is secreted by gastrin cells, also called G cells.

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 Phases of Gastric Secretion

• Gastric secretion is occur in three phases:

- a cephalic phase, a gastric phase, and an intestinal phase.
Cephalic Phase
• Occurs even before food enters the stomach, especially while
it is being eaten.
• It results from the sight, smell, thought, or taste of food, and
the greater the appetite, the more intense is the stimulation.

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• This phase of secretion normally accounts for about 20% of
the gastric secretion associated with eating a meal.

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Gastric Phase

The gastric phase of secretion accounts for about 70% of the

total gastric secretion associated with eating a meal

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Intestinal Phase
• The intestinal phase has two components that influence
gastric secretion:
• Excitatory
• Inhibitory
Excitatory component
• Occurs in response to the presence of products of protein
digestion in the duodenum
• Intestinal gastrin travels in the blood to the stomach, where
it enhances the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen
• It accounts only for approximately 10% of the acid secretory
response to a meal

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 Inhibitory component
• Has a very strong influence on gastric secretion

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 Pancreas
Major function of the pancreas
1. Involved in digestion processes by producing:
a. Digestive enzymes: necessary to digest
CHO, fat, and protein
b. Bicarbonates : to neutralize the gastric juice
c. Water and electrolytes (Na+, K+ etc):
Location of secretion
2. Digestive enzymes and electrolytes are secreted by acinar
cells of the pancreases
3. HCO3- and water are secreted in cells lining the pancreatic
ducts.

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 Pancreatic juice is
secreted most abundantly
in response to the
presence of chyme in the
upper portions of the small
intestine

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 • The inactive proenzymes secreted by cells of the pancreas
that break protein, fat, and CHO include:
• Trypsinogen (protein digestion)
• Chymotrypsinogen (protein digestion)
• Procarboxypolypeptidase (protein digestion)
• Pancreatic lipase (fat digestion)
• Alpha amylase (CHO digestion)

Pancreatic secretion contains multiple enzymes for digesting all of the three major types of food:
proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It also contains large quantities of bicarbonate ions, which play
an important role in neutralizing the acidity of the chyme emptied from the stomach into the
duodenum. The most important of the pancreatic enzymes for digesting proteins are trypsin,
chymotrypsin, and carboxypolypeptidase. By far the most abundant of these is
trypsin.
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• All the inactive enzymes (to prevent from digesting the
proteins of the cells in which they are formed) flow through
the pancreatic duct into the duodenum.
• At the beginning, an enzyme called enterokinase
(=enteropeptidase) that is located on the wall of the
duodenum changes trypsinogen to trypsin.
• Trypsin then activates the others as follows (look steps b and
c):

a. Trypsinogen ----enterokinase  Trypsin

b. Chymotrypsinogen----trypsin  Chymotrypsin
c. Procarboxypolypaptidase ---trypsin Carboxypolypeptidase

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 • The most important of the pancreatic enzymes for digesting
proteins are trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypolypeptidase.
• By far the most abundant of these is trypsin.
• Trypsin and chymotrypsin split whole and partially digested
proteins into peptides of various sizes but do not cause
release of individual aa.
• However, carboxypolypeptidase does split some peptides into
individual amino acids

• The pancreatic enzyme for digesting CHO is pancreatic amylase, which hydrolyzes
starches, glycogen, and most other carbohydrates to form mostly disaccharide maltose
• The main enzyme for fat digestion is: Pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes dietary triglycerides
into monoglycerides and FFA, which are the absorbable units of fat
• Cholesterol estrase and phospholipase(splits FA from phospholipids)

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Hormonal control of pancreatic exocrine secretion

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 Phases of Pancreatic Secretion

• Pancreatic secretion occurs in three phases, the same as for

gastric secretion: the cephalic phase, the gastric phase, and
the intestinal phase
Cephalic and Gastric Phases
• The same nervous signals from the brain that cause secretion
in the stomach also cause acetylcholine release by the vagus
nerve endings in the pancreas
• This causes moderate amounts of enzymes to be secreted in
the pancreatic acini

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• Cephalic phase: approximately 20% of pancreatic
secretory response to a meal
• Gastric phase: 5 to 10% of pancreatic secretory response
to a meal

Intestinal phase
• Most pancreatic secretion takes place
• Secretin(intestinal hormone) stimulates release of a large
volume of pancreatic juice with a high [HCO3-]
• Secretin is released in response to acidic chyme in the
duodenum (maximal release at pH ~ 3.0)

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 Secretion of Bile by the Liver

• One of the many functions of the liver is to secrete bile,

normally between 600 and 1000 ml/day.
• Bile serves two important functions:
1. Emulsification of fat in the duodenum
=changing greater fat globules into smaller fat-droplets
called micelles
2. Means for excretion of several important waste products
from the blood.
These include especially bilirubin, an end product of
hemoglobin destruction, and excesses of cholesterol

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• After bile is produced in the liver it will be stored in the gall
bladder
• It is transported toward the small intestine by the hepatic duct
(from the liver) and the cystic duct (from the gallbladder),
which join to form the common bile duct
• The common bile duct and the pancreatic duct join to form the
hepatopancreatic ampulla, which empties into the duodenum
• The entrance to the duodenum is surrounded by the Sphincter
of Oddi
• It is closed between meals and relaxes in response to the
intestinal hormone cholecystokinin

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 Constituents of bile
• Bile contains the following constituents:
1. Bile salts (bile acids), ~11%
2. Bile pigment (bilirubin), ~1%
3. Others organic constituents like: ( ~3%)
Cholesterol, Lecithin, protein etc
4. Electrolytes (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-, and greater HCO3-
than plasma) ~1%.
5. H2O (~ 84%) also takes the higher share of
bile

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 Bile pigments (Bilirubin):
• Does not play a role in digestion at all but instead is a waste
product excreted in the bile
• Is the primary bile pigment derived from the breakdown of
worn-out red blood cells
• The end product from degradation of the heme (iron
containing) part of the hemoglobin
• In the intestine, bacterial actions change bilirubin into
urobilinogen. They are further oxidized and excreted in feces
or urine as stercobilin and urobilin.
• Gives faces its brown color
• Excess level of bilirubin in the blood (>18 mg/L) causes
jaundice, that is, yellow coloration of the sclera's, skin etc occurs.

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• Gallbladder (GB) is a storage sac for bile.
• GB is stimulated by CCK to contract and release bile.
• Bile emulsifies fat in the duodenum.
• Cholesterol and other substances precipitate in the GB and this
effect favors gall-stone formation.
• 75% of gallstones are derived from cholesterol, other 25% from
bilirubin abnormal precipitation

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 The Small intestine (SI)

• SI is specialized for completion of digestion and absorption

of nutrients.
a. Duodenum: ~25 cm
It receives chyme from the stomach and digestive secretions
from the pancreas and liver and neutralize its acids (Brunner’s
Glands)
b. Jejunum : ~1.5m
Bulk of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption occurs
c. Ileum : ~1.7m
 Mainly absorptive
 Ends at the ileocecal valve – sphincter controls the flow of
material from the ileum into the cecum
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• The mucosa of SI is well adapted for digestion and absorption
with certain anatomical modifications:
• Plicae circulares (circular folds)
• Villi
• Microvilli
Plicae circulares (circular folds)
• Form internal rings around the circumference of the SI
• Are formed from inward foldings of the mucosal and
submucosal layers of the intestinal wall
• Well developed in the duodenum and jejunum
• Increase the absorptive surface area of the mucosa
about threefold

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 Villi
• Millions of smaller projections of mucosa that cover
plica
• Two types of epithelial cells cover the villi:
– Goblet cells (produce mucus)
– Absorptive cells (most abundant)
• Taken together, the villi increase the absorptive surface
area another 10-fold

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 Microvilli
• Microscopic projections found on the luminal surface
of the absorptive cells - form the brush border
( contains enterokinase, disaccharidases (maltase,
sucrase,and lactase), aminopeptidases)
• Increase the surface area for absorption another 20-fold
• Together, these three anatomical adaptations of the intestinal
mucosa — plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli — increase
the surface area as much as 600-fold

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 Motility of the small intestine
• Segmentation and peristalsis take place in the small intestine
• Segmentation: ring-like contractions along the length of the SI
• Mixes chyme with digestive juices and exposes it to the
intestinal mucosa for absorption
• Causes only a small degree of forward movement of the
chyme along the small intestine

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• Peristalsis:
• The wave-like form of muscle contraction
• Primarily moves chyme along the intestine and causes
only a small amount of mixing
• Weak and slow in the small intestine so that time is
sufficient for complete digestion and absorption of the
chyme

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• The motility of the small intestine may be enhanced during a
meal by:
• Distension of the small intestine
– Distension of the duodenum elicit segmentation
contractions in this segment
• Gastrin - causes segmentation of the empty ileum
• Extrinsic nerve stimulation
– Parasympathetic stimulation, by way of the vagus
nerve, further enhances segmentation.
– Sympathetic stimulation inhibits this activity

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 Digestion and absorption in the small intestine

Carbohydrates
• Starch is initially acted upon by amylase
• Salivary amylase breaks down starch molecules in the mouth
and stomach.
• Pancreatic amylase carries on this activity in the small intestine
• Amylase fragments polysaccharides into disaccharides
(maltose, composed of two glucose molecules)
• The disaccharide molecules, primarily maltose, are presented
to the brush border of the absorptive cells.
• As the disaccharides (maltose, sucrose & lactose) are absorbed,
disaccharidases (maltase, sucrase, and lactase) split these
nutrient molecules into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose,
and galactose)
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• Glucose and galactose enter the absorptive cells by way of
secondary active transport
• Fructose enters the absorptive cells by way of facilitated
diffusion.
• All monosaccharide molecules exit the absorptive cells by
way of facilitated diffusion and enter the blood capillaries

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 Proteins

• Protein digestion begins in the stomach by the action of the

gastric enzyme pepsin.
– This enzyme fragments large protein molecules into
smaller peptide chains.
• Digestion is continued in the small intestine by the pancreatic
enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase,
which hydrolyze the peptide chains into amino acids,
dipeptides, and tripeptides
• Amino acids enter the absorptive cells by way of secondary
active transport

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• As the nutrient molecules are absorbed, aminopeptidases
split dipeptides and tripeptides into their constituent amino
acids
• The amino acid molecules then exit the absorptive cells by
way of facilitated diffusion and enter the blood capillaries

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 Lipids
• Fat digestion begins in the mouth and stomach by the action
of the salivary enzyme lingual lipase
• However, the role of this enzyme is minor
• Lipids are digested primarily in the small intestine
1. Bile salts cause emulsification, which is the dispersal of
large fat droplets into a suspension of smaller droplets
2. Pancreatic lipase acts on the lipid droplets to hydrolyze the
triglyceride molecules into monoglycerides and FFA- these
are water insoluble
3. Micelles formed by the amphipathic bile salts
• Monoglycerides and free fatty acids are carried in this interior
region of the micelle

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• Upon reaching the brush border of the absorptive cells, they
leave the micelles and enter the cells by simple diffusion
– This process takes place primarily in the jejunum and
proximal ileum
• The bile salts are absorbed in the distal ileum by way of
secondary active transport
• Within the absorptive cells:
• Monoglycerides + FFAS triglycerides (in endoplasmic
reticulum)
• Triglycerides packaged in a lipoprotein coat (in Golgi
apparatus)
• These protein-coated lipid globules, referred to as
chylomicrons (water soluble)

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• Chylomicrons leave the absorptive cell by way of exocytosis
• They enter the lacteals, which are part of the lymphatic
system
 B/c they unable to cross the basement membrane of the
blood capillaries

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 Water and electrolytes
• The absorption of nutrient molecules primarily takes place in
the duodenum and jejunum, creates an osmotic gradient for
the passive absorption of water
• Sodium absorption:
• Passive diffusion (through “leaky” tight junctions)
• Na+– Cl- cotransport
• Na+–glucose cotransport
• Na+–amino acid cotransport
• Na+- K+ - 2 Cl–cotransport

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 Large intestine

• From the ileocecal valve (juncture between the ileum and the
large intestine) to the anus
• Has a larger diameter than the small intestine
• Mucosa:
• Composed of absorptive cells and mucus-secreting goblet
cells
• Does not form villi
• Consists of the following structures:
• Cecum
• Appendix
• Colon
• Rectum
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• Cecum:
• The most proximal portion of the large intestine
• Receives chyme from the ileum of the SI through the
ileocecal valve
• Appendix:
• a small projection at the bottom of the cecum is a
lymphoid tissue. This tissue contains lymphocytes and
assists in defense against bacteria that enter the body
through the digestive system

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• Colon:
• Largest portion of the large intestine
• Consists of four regions:
• Ascending colon (travels upward toward the diaphragm
on the right side of the abdomen)
• Transverse colon (crosses the abdomen under the
diaphragm)
• Descending colon (travels downward through the
abdomen on the left side)
• Sigmoid colon (S-shaped region found in the lower
abdomen)

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• Rectum:
• Last portion of the digestive tract
• Leads to the external surface of the body through the anus
• Internal and external anal sphincters
• The large intestine typically receives 500 to 1500 ml of
chyme per day from the small intestine
• Chyme consists of indigestible food residues (e.g., cellulose),
unabsorbed biliary components, and any remaining fluid (b/c
most digestion and absorption in SI).
• Therefore, the two major functions of the large intestine are:
• Drying
• Storage

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• The colon extracts more H2O and salt from the contents.
What remains to be eliminated is known as feces
• The primary function of the large intestine is to store feces
before defecation
Motility of the large intestine
• Normally sluggish
• Two types
– Mixing movements (Haustrations)
• Ring-like contractions (about 2.5 cm) of the circular
muscle divide the colon into pockets called haustra
• Haustrations = bulging of the large intestine into
baglike sacs as a result of circular and longitudinal
muscle contraction
• Serve primarily to move the contents slowly back and
forth, exposing them to the absorptive surface 74
 – Propulsive movements (Mass movements)
• Propel chyme from the cecum to the sigmoid colon
• When a mass of feces is forced into the rectum, there is
a desire to defecate

Reflexes Affecting Mass Movements

• Gastrocolic reflex – stimulatory
– Distention of the stomach
• Duodenocolic reflex - stimulatory
– Distention of the small intestine
• Both push the colonic contents into the rectum, triggering
the defecation reflex

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• Both reflexes transmitted by autonomic nervous system
• Defecation
• When mass movement forces feces into the rectrum
– Immediate desire to defecate
• Reflex contraction of rectrum
• Relaxation of anal sphincter

• Approx. 80 to 200 mL of fecal matter expelled daily

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 Defecation Reflex

1. Distension of the rectum.

2. Stimulation of the stretch receptors in the rectum.
3. A. Short reflex: Stimulation of myenteric plexus in sigmoid colon and rectum.
B. Long reflex: stimulation of parasympathetic motor neurons in sacral spinal
cord.
C. stimulation of somatic motor neurons.
4. Increased local peristalsis. Relaxation of internal anal sphincter and contraction of
external anal sphincter.

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79
• From the spinal cord, defecation signals also have the
following effects

• Taking deep breath

• Closure of glottis
• Contraction of abdominal wall muscles
• Relaxation and movement of pelvis floor downward

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 Secretion of the large intestine
• Large intestine does not secrete any digestive enzymes
• Colonic secretion consists of an alkaline (NaHCO3) mucus
solution
• The mucus provides lubrication to facilitate passage of the
feces
• The NaHCO3 neutralizes irritating acids produced by
local bacterial fermentation
• No digestion takes place within the large intestine because
there are no digestive enzymes. However, the colonic bacteria
do digest some of the cellulose for their use

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 Composition of Feces
• Three-fourths water

• One-fourth solid matter

– 30% dead bacteria
– 10-20% fat
– 10-20% inorganic matter
– 2-3% protein
– 30% undigested roughage (e.g. bile pigment, sloughed
epithelial cells)

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 Reading assignment

Function of Gastrointestinal Hormones

• Gastrin
• Secretin
• Cholecystokinin (CCK)
• Gastric inhibitory peptide(GIP)

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