DIGITAL

Communication

Prof.Sukanya Kulkarni
Syllabus

Information Theory
Basebnd transmission
Bandpass modulation
Reception
Error correction codes
Course Outcomes
 Ability to describe various entities of digital
communication system
 Solve problems to interpret various concepts
 Analyze mathematically various source coding
methods/modulation/demodulation /error correction
codes
 Compare various modulation/demodulation /ECC
 Determine the behavior of signals in time and
frequency domain at various stages of digital
communication systems
 Justify modulation/demodulation/Bit rate/ Bandwidth
requirements in various applications
 Books
 Text Books:
 Digital communications by Simon Haykins
 Principles of Communciation systems by Taub &
Schilling

 Reference books:
1. Digital Communication, IV edition by J. Proakis
 What is communication?
 Some information is available at a place
and the way of transferring this information to
a distant place is called communication.
Various types of Comm. systems

What is the
common
requiremen
t of these
systems to
function
properly?
The available information must be
transformed in a form which is
compatible with characteristics of the
communication system

What does it mean?

Electrical Communication system

Information Information

I/P Transducer O/P Transducer

Electrical signal

Transmitter Receiver
channel

Twisted Copper wire coaxial cable

optical fiber space
 Types of Digital
Communication Systems
 Signal Type Transmission Example
 Analog Analog Classical telephony
 Analog Digital PCM TDM
 Digital Analog Modems
 Digital Digital LANs
 Communications Media
 Physical matter that carries transmission
 Guided media:
 Transmission flows along a physical guide
(Media guides the signal))
 Twisted pair wiring, coaxial cable and optical
fiber cable
 Wireless media (aka, radiated media)
 No wave guide, the transmission just flows
through the air (or space)
 Radio (microwave, satellite) and infrared
communications

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 10

 Twisted Pair (TP) Wires
 Commonly used for telephones and LANs
 Reduced electromagnetic interference
 Via twisting two wires together
(Usually several twists per inch)
 TP cables have a number of pairs of wires
 Telephone lines: two pairs (4 wires, usually only one pair is
used by the telephone)
 LAN cables: 4 pairs (8 wires)
 Also used in telephone trunk lines (up to several
thousand pairs)
 Shielded twisted pair also exists, but is more expensive

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 11

 Coaxial Cable
(protective jacket )

Wire mesh ground

• Less prone to
interference
than TP (due to
(shield)

• More expensive
• used mostly than TP (quickly
for CATV disappearing)
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 12
 Fiber Optic Cable
 Light created by an LED (light-emitting diode) or laser is
sent down a thin glass or plastic fiber
 Has extremely high capacity, ideal for broadband
 Works better under harsh environments
 Not fragile, nor brittle; Nit heavy nor bulky
 More resistant to corrosion, fire, etc.,
 Fiber optic cable structure (from center):
 Core (v. small, 5-50 microns, ~ the size of a single hair)
 Cladding, which reflects the signal
 Protective outer jacket

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 13

Optical Fiber
Excessive signal weakening and dispersion

(different parts of signal arrive at different times)

Center light likely to arrive at the same

time as the other parts

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 14

 Satellite Communications

in a geosynchronous orbit

A special form of
microwave
communications

Signals sent from

• Long propagation delay
the ground to a
– Due to great distance satellite; Then
between ground station and relayed to its
satellite (Even with signals destination
traveling at light speed) ground station
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 15
 Wireless Media
 Radio
 Wireless transmission of electrical waves over air
 Each device has a radio transceiver with a specific frequency
 Low power transmitters (few miles range)
 Often attached to portables (Laptops, PDAs, cell phones)
 Includes
 AM and FM radios, Cellular phones
 Wireless LANs (IEEE 802.11) and Bluetooth
 Microwaves and Satellites
 Infrared
 “invisible” light waves (frequency is below red light)
 Requires line of sight; generally subject to interference from heavy
rain, smog, and fog
 Used in remote control units (e.g., TV)

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 16

 Point-to-Point Configuration

– Used when computers generate enough data to fill the

capacity of the circuit
– Each computer has its own circuit to any other computer in
the network (expensive)
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 17
 Multipoint Configuration
– Used when each computer does not need to continuously use
the entire capacity of the circuit

- Only one computer can

+ Cheaper (no need for many
use the circuit at a time
wires) and simpler to wire
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 18
Data Flow (Transmission)

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 19

 Tx and Rx sections
 Each channel has some characteristics
features e.g. copper cables carry
voltages/currents, EM wave travels thru
space etc. besides some fundamental
limitations.

 The job of transmitter is to provide

compatibility at this stage.

 The job of receiver is to perform inverse

operation of Tx.
 Fundamental limitations

 Noise
 White noise
 S/N ratio must

be maintained
 Impulse noise
 Multipath fading
 Dispersion
 Bandwidth
- stored energy in inductances and
capacitances can not be changed
instantaneously.

- Copper channels have distributed

capacitances and inductances

-Telephone cables act as LPF and attenuate

high frequency components. It results in
distortion.
Wireless channels act as filters and cause
delay distortion, doppler spread
 Designing of Analog comm.
system
 Estimation of BW of intended analog
signals

 Select a channel such that

BW of system > BW of signal

 Design the Tx and Rx.

 Measure the performance in terms of

fidelity
 Designing of Digital Comm. system
 Estimate the data rate of intended service.

 Determine BW using Nyquist theorem

Ch BW >= (signaling rate)/2
- for real time traffic (voice & video) ‘r’ determines
the value of B
- for non real time traffic (data) ‘B’ determines ‘r’

 Measure the performance in terms of accuracy

 Techniques for improving the
performance
 Modulation
- systematic alteration of carrier wave in
accordance with instantaneous value of
the message signal.
- Integral part of all transmitters
- several advantages e.g. practicability of
antenna, multiplexing, noise reduction etc
Modulations
 Coding
purpose

BW Control Efficient representation Error Control

(source coding)

Increasing Decreasing
Error Forward
BW BW
Detection Error
(M-ary (Binary to
and Correction
to binary) M-ary)
ARQ
 Block diagram of a DCS

Source Channel Pulse Bandpass

Format
encode encode modulate modulate

Digital modulation

Channel
Digital demodulation

Source Channel Demod.

Format Detect
decode decode Sample
 Bit Rate vs. Baud Rate
 bit: a unit of information
 baud: a unit of signaling speed
 Bit rate (or data rate): b
 Number of bits transmitted per second
 Baud rate (or symbol rate): s
 number of symbols transmitted per second
 General formula:
Example: AM
b=sxn n=1
where b=s
b = Data Rate (bits/second)
s = Symbol Rate (symbols/sec.) Example: 16-QAM
n = Number of bits per symbol
n=4
b=4xs
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 29
Data Type vs. Transmission Type
Analog Digital
Transmission Transmission

Analog Radio, PCM & Video

Data Broadcast TV standards using
codecs

Digital Data Modem-based LAN cable

communications standards

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 30

Analog Transmission of Digital Data
 A well known example
 Using phone lines to connect PCs to Internet
 PCs generates digital data
 Phone lines use analog transmission technology
 Modems translate digital data into analog signals

Internet
M

Phone line Telephone

Network
PC M Analog Central Office
transmission (Telco)
Digital data
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 31
Figure 9.6 Telephone line bandwidth

•The signal bandwidth must be smaller than the cable bandwidth.

 Using Telephone and Cable Networks for Data
Transmission

 Telephone networks were created to provide voice

communication.
 Need to communicate digital data resulted in invention
of the dial-up modem.
 With the appearance of the internet and the need for
high-speed downloading and uploading (modem too
slow), the telephone companies added a new
technology (DSL: digital subscriber line)
DSL
 Dial-up
 Originally designed to carry “Speech”.

 300Hz to 3.4kHz

 In one wire:
 Phone call data + Internet data = ?
NOISE
 DSL
 Originally designed to carry “Data”.
 25kHz to 1.1MHz.
 In one wire:
 Phone call data + Internet data = ?

BUT IN DIFFERENT
FREQUENCIES
Bandwidth division in ADSL
The Splitter
 The Splitter
 One input and two outs device:
 Phone output get.
 DSL output get.

 Phone output gat is a Low-pass

filter:
 It passes DC to 3.4kHz.
 ADSL modem
 ADSL modem installed at a customer’s site.
 The local loop connects to a splitter which separates voice and data
communications.
 ADSL modem modulates and demodulates the data, using DMT, and
creates downstream and upstream channels.
 Bandwidth of a Voice Circuit
 Difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in
a band or set if frequencies
 Human hearing frequency range: 20 Hz to 14 kHz
 Bandwidth = 14,000 – 20 = 13,800 Hz
 Voice circuit frequency range: 0 Hz to 4 kHz
 Designed for most commonly used range of human voice
 Phone lines transmission capacity is much bigger
 1 MHz for lines up to 2 miles from a telephone exchange
 300 kHz for lines 2-3 miles away

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 41

 Data Capacity of a Voice
Circuit
 Fastest rate at which you can send your data over the
circuit (in bits per second)
 Calculated as the bit rate: b = s x n
 Depends on modulation (symbol rate)

 Max. Symbol rate = bandwidth (if no noise)

 Maximum voice circuit capacity:

 Using QAM with 4 bits per symbol (n = 4)
 Max. voice channel carrier wave frequency: 4000 Hz = max.
symbol rate (under perfect conditions)
Data rate = 4 * 4000  16,000 bps

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 42

 Modem - Modulator/demodulator
 Device that encodes and decodes data by manipulating
the carrier wave
 V-series of modem standards (by ITU-T)
 V.22
 An early standard, now obsolete
 Used FM, with 2400 symbols/sec  2400 bps bit rate
 V.34
 One of the robust V standards
 Used TCM (8.4 bits/symbol), with 3,428 symbols/sec

 multiple data rates(up to 28.8 kbps)

 Includes a handshaking sequence that tests the circuit and
determines the optimum data rate

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 43

Digital Transmission of Analog Data
 Analog voice data sent over digital network
using digital transmission
 Requires a pair of special devices called
Codec - Coder/decoder
A device that converts an analog voice signal
into digital form
 Also converts it back to analog data at the receiving
end
 Used by the phone system
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 44
 PCM - Pulse Code Modulation
phone switch
(DIGITAL)

local loop trunk To other

switches
Analog Central Digital
transmission Office transmission
(Telco)
• DS-0:
• Basic digital convert analog signals to digital data
communications using PCM (similar to PAM)
unit used by phone • 8000 samples per second and 8 bits
network per sample (7 bits for sample+ 1 bit
• Corresponds to 1 for control)
digital voice signal  64 Kb/s (DS-0 rate)
Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc 3 - 45
Digital Communication- Advantages
• Less Distortion, Low noise &
interference.
• Regenerative Repeaters can be used.
• Digital Circuits are more reliable.
• Hardware implementation is more
flexible.
Digital Communication- Advantages
• Secrecy of information.
• Low probability of error due to error
detection and error correction.
• Multiplexing- ( TDM )
• Signal Jamming is avoided.
Digital Communication-
Disadvantages
• Large Bandwidth
• Synchronization
END
Sampling review

50
 Chapter Outlines

 Pulse modulation: transition from analog to digital

communications
 Sampling
 Pulse-amplitude modulation
 Quantization
 Pulse-code modulation, which is the standard method
for the transmission of an analog message signal by
digital means
 Time-division multiplexing
 Digital multiplexers, which combine many slow bit
streams into a single faster stream
51
 Other forms of digital pulse modulation:
delta modulation and differential pulse-
code modulation
 Linear prediction
 Adaptive form of differential pulse-code
modulation and delta modulation

52
Introduction
 Two families of pulse modulation: analog
pulse modulation and digital pulse
modulation
 Analog pulse modulation: PAM, PDM,
PPM. The information is in a continuous
manner.
 Digital pulse modulation: The information is
in a form that is discrete in both time and
amplitude

53
 Sampling Process

Figure 3.1
The sampling process. (a) Analog signal. (b)
Instantaneously sampled version of the
analog signal.
54
Sampling Process
 g(t): an arbitrary signal of finite energy
 G(f): Fourier transform of g(t)
 Ts: sampling interval
 fs=1/Ts: sampling rate

55
Sampling Process

56
 Sampling Process

Figure 3.2
(a) Spectrum of a strictly band-limited signal g(t).
(b) Spectrum of the sampled version of g(t) for a
sampling period Ts = 1/2 W.
57
Sampling Process

58
 Sampling Process
 Sampling theorem for strictly band-limited signals of
finite energy in two equivalent parts:
1. A band-limited signal of finite energy, which has no
frequency components higher than W Hertz, is
completely described by specifying the values of the
signal at instants of time separated by 1/2W seconds
2. A band-limited signal of finite energy, which has no
frequency components higher than W Hertz, may be
completely recovered from a knowledge of its
samples taken at the rate of 2W samples per second

59
Sampling Process
 The sampling rate of 2W samples per
second, for a signal bandwidth of W Hertz,
is called the Nyquist rate; its reciprocal
1/2W (measured in seconds) is called
Nyquist interval
 An information bearing signal is not strictly
band limited, with the result that some
degree of undersampling is encountered

60
 Sampling Process

Figure 3.3
(a) Spectrum of a signal. (b) Spectrum of an
undersampled version of the signal exhibiting the
61
aliasing phenomenon.
 Sampling Process

 Prior to sampling, a low-pass anti-aliasing filter is

used to attenuate those high-frequency components
of the signal that are not essential to the information
being conveyed by the signal
 The filtered signal is sampled at a rate slightly higher
than the Nyquist rate
 The reconstruction filter is low-pass with a passband
extending from –W to W, which is itself determined
by the anti-aliasing filter
 The filter has a transition band extending (for positive
frequencies) from W to fs-W, where fs is the sampling
rate 62
 Sampling Process
Figure 3.4
(a) Anti-alias filtered
spectrum of an
information-bearing
signal. (b) Spectrum
of instantaneously
sampled version of
the signal, assuming
the use of a
sampling
rate greater than the
Nyquist rate.
(c) Magnitude
response of 63
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

64
 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
 In pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), the
amplitudes of regularly spaced pulses are
varied in proportional to the corresponding
sample values of a continuous message
signal

Figure 3.5
Flat-top samples, representing an analog signal.65
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

66
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
 This output is equivalent to passing the
original message signal m(t) through
another low-pass filter of frequency
response H(f)
 H(f)=Tsinc(fT)exp(-jπfT)
 Using flat-top samples to generate a PAM
signal, we have introduced amplitude
distortion as well as a delay of T/2
 The distortion caused by the use of pulse-
amplitude modulation to transmit an analog
information-bearing signal is referred to as
the aperture effect
67
 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation

Figure 3.6
(a) Rectangular pulse h(t). (b) Spectrum H(f),
made up of the magnitude |H(f)|, and phase 68
 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
 Ideally, the magnitude response of the
equalizer is

Figure 3.7
System for recovering message signal m(t) from
PAM signal s(t).
69
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation
 The amount of equalization needed in
practice is usually small. For a duty cycle
T/Ts≦0.1, the amplitude distortion is less
than 0.5 percent, in which case the need
for equalization may be omitted altogether

70
 Other Forms of Pulse
Modulation
Figure 3.8
Illustrating two
different forms of
pulse-time
modulation for the
case of a
sinusoidal
modulating wave.
(a) Modulating
wave. (b) Pulse
carrier.
(c) PDM wave.
(d) PPM wave. 71
Bandwidth-Noise Trade-Off
 PPM and FM system exhibit a similar noise
performance
 Both systems have a figure of merit
proportional to the square of the
transmission bandwidth normalized with
respect to the message bandwidth
 Both system exhibit a threshold effect as
the signal-to-noise ratio is reduced
 Two fundamental processes are involved in
the generation of a binary PCM wave:
sampling and quantization

72
 Channels for Digital
Communication

Channel Characteristics:
• Bandwidth
• Power
• Linear or Non-linear
• External interference
Types of Channels

1. Telephone Channels
2. Coaxial Cables
3. Optical fibers
4. Microwave radio
5. Satellite Channel
1. Telephone Channels

• Provides voice grade Communication.

• Good for data communication over
long distances.
• Frequency range: 300Hz – 3400Hz.
• High SNR – about 30dB.
1. Telephone Channels contd..

• Flat amplitude response for voice

signals.
• For data & image transmissions
EQUALIZERS are used.
• Transmission rate = 16.8kb/s
2. Coaxial Cable

• Single-wire conductor inside an outer

Conductor with dielectric between
them.
• Wide Bandwidth
• Low external Interference.
2. Coaxial Cable contd..

• Closely spaced Repeaters are

required.
• Transmission rate = 274 Mb/s.
3.Optical fibers

• Communication is by light rays.

• Fiber consists of Inner core and an
outer core called CLADDING.
• Refractive Index of Cladding is less.
3.Optical fibers

• Larger Bandwidth.
• Immune to cross talk and EMI.
• More secure.
• Low cost.
• Date rate = Terra bits/sec.
4. Microwave radio

• Transmitter & Receiver With antennas.

• Works on Line-of-sight principle.
• Point to Multipoint communication.
• Reliable & High Speed of Transmission.
4. Microwave Radio

• Operating Frequency - (1 – 30)GHz

• System Performance degrades due
to meteorological variations.
5. Satellite Channel.

• Repeater in the sky.

• Placed in geo-stationary orbit.
• Long distance transmission.
• High Bandwidth.
5. Satellite Channel

• Operates in microwave frequency.

• Uplink frequency is more than down
link frequency
Figure 3.13
The basic elements of a PCM system.