BUILDING MATERIALS AND

CONSTRUCTION IV – AR8521

SEM - 5 I YEAR - 3
BATCH (2019-2024)
AR. RENITHA ESTHER
UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO CEMENT AND CONCRETE

Cement and concrete as building materials. Brief history of their use through
examples.

 Composition, manufacture, properties, types and uses of cement.

Tests for cement.

 Introduction to cement mortar and plastering and their composition.

 Concrete and its composition. Mix design.

Nature of aggregates for mix including classification, sources, shape, size, grading,
sampling and analysis.

 Proportioning, water-cement ratio, workability.

Stages in concrete construction- formwork, mixing, placing, curing.

Cement and concrete finishes including roughcast, dry dash, textured, stucco.

 Water proofing and damp proofing of concrete.

CEMENT
A cement is a binder used in construction industry to set, hardens, adheres to
other materials and bind them together.

Cements used in construction industry may be classified as hydraulic and non-hydraulic.

• Non-hydraulic -The latter does not set and harden in water such as non-hydraulic lime or
which are unstable in water, e g. Plaster of Paris.

• Hydraulic cement - The hydraulic cement set and harden in water and give a product
which is stable eg - Portland cement.

CONCRETE
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand)
and coarse aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Portland cement is the
commonly used type of cement for production of concrete.

Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates (sand & rock). The paste,
composed of cement and water, coats the surface of the fine (sand) and coarse aggregates
(rocks) and binds them together into a rock-like mass known as concrete.
HISTORY OF CEMENT AND CONCRETE

ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS were the first to use clay as cementing

material. In ancient monuments, e.g. forts, places of worship and defence structures,
stones have been invariably used as a construction material with lime as the binder.

EGYPTIANS- cementing materials obtained by burning gypsum. Egyptians have

used lime and gypsum as cementing materials in the famous pyramids. Great pyramid -
81.5 % calcium sulphate and 9.5 % carbonate.

GREEK AND ROMANS - Cementing materials obtained by burning lime stone.

ROMANS - One of the most notable examples of Roman work is the Pantheon.
It consists of a concrete dome 43.43m in span. The calcareous cements used by the
Romans were either composed of suitable limestones burned in kilns or were mixtures of
lime and puzzolanic materials (volcanic ash, tuff) combining into a hard concrete.

Powdered brick named surkhi is also one of the binding material used by Romans.
Romans added blood, milk and lard to their mortar and concrete to achieve better
workability.
Vitruvius, a Roman scientist, is believed to be the first to have the known how about the
chemistry of the cementitious lime. Vitruvius’s work was followed by the researches
made by M. Vicat of France. Joseph Aspedin of Yorkshire (U.K.) was the first to
introduce Portland cement in 1824 formed by heating a mixture of limestone and finely
divided clay in a furnace to a temperature high enough to drive off the carbonic acid
gas. He took the Patent of Portland cement on 1st October 1824.

Aspdin's Portland cement Making Process

•Ground hard limestones and finely divided clay is mixed to form slurry and calcined it in
a furnace similar to a lime kiln till the CO2 was expelled.

•The mixture so calcined was then ground to a fine powder.

•Later in 1845 Isaac Charles Johnson burnt a mixture of clay and chalk till the clinkering
stage to make better cement and established factories in 1851.

•In the early period, cement was used for making mortar only. Later the use of cement
was extended for making concrete.
Portland cement in India

In India, Portland cement was first manufactured in 1904 near Madras, by the
South India Industrial Ltd. But this venture failed. Between 1912 and 1913, the Indian
Cement Co. Ltd., was established at Porbander (Gujarat).

By 1914 this Company was able to deliver about 1000 tons of Portland cement. By 1918
three factories were established. Together they were able to produce about 85000 tons
of cement per year.

PORTLAND CEMENT COMPOSITION

Portland cement consists essentially of compounds of

Calcareous material Lime (calcium oxide, cao)
+
Argillaceous material Mixed with silica (silicon dioxide, sio2)
+
Alumina (aluminum oxide, Al2O3)

The lime is obtained from a calcareous (lime-containing) raw material, and the
other oxides are derived from an argillaceous (clayey) material.
 COMPOSITION
OXIDE FUNCTION
(%)
Control strength and loudness. Its
Cao
deficiency reduces strength and setting 60 - 65
Lime
time.
Gives strength. Excess of it causes slow
Sio2
setting. Responsible for quick setting, if in 17 - 25
Silica
Al2O3 excess,for
Responsible it lowers the strength.
quick setting, if in excess,
3-8
Alumina it lowers the strength.
Fe2O3 Gives colour and help sin fusion of
0.5 - 6
Iron oxide different ingredients.
Imparts colour and hardness. If in excess
MgO
it causes cracks in mortar and concrete 1-3
Magnesia
and unsoundness.
Na2O+ K2O
0.5 - 1.3
Alkali oxides
These are residues, and if in excess
Tio2 0.1 - 0.4
causes efflorescence and cracking.
P2O2 Makes cement sound. 0.1 - 0.2

SO3 1-2
MANUFACTURE

The raw materials required for manufacture of Portland cement are calcareous
materials, such as limestone or chalk, and argillaceous material such as shale or clay.

The process of manufacture of cement consists of

• Grinding the raw materials.

• Mixing them intimately in certain proportions depending upon their purity and
composition.

• Burning them in a kiln at a temperature of about 1300 to 1500°C, at which temperature,

the material sinters and partially fuses to form nodular shaped clinker.

• The clinker is cooled and ground to fine powder with addition of about 3 to 5% of
gypsum. The product formed by using this procedure is Portland cement.

Depending upon the type of mixing and grinding of raw materials there are two processes
known as
 WET PROCESS
 DRY PROCESSES
WET PROCESS
•Step 1 - The limestone brought from the quarries is crushed to smaller fragments.

Step 2 - The crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill and a little water is added. On
operating the ball mill, the steel balls in it pulverize the raw materials which form a slurry
with water.

The slurry is a liquid of creamy consistency with water content of about 35 to 50 per cent,
wherein particles, crushed to the fineness of Indian Standard Sieve number 9, are held in
suspension

Ball Mill- A ball mill consists of several compartments charged

with progressively smaller hardened steel balls. Ball mill is
used to pulverize the raw materials into desired fineness.

Step 3 - This slurry is passed to silos (storage tanks), where

the proportioning of the compounds is adjusted to ensure
desired chemical composition.

Step 4 - The corrected slurry having about 40 per cent

moisture content, is then fed into rotary kiln. Where it loses
moisture and forms into lumps or nodules. These are finally
burned at 1500-1600°C.
• The rotary kiln is an important component of a cement factory.

• It is a thick steel cylinder of diameter from 3 metres to 8 metres, lined with

refractory materials(heat resistant Materil), mounted on roller bearings and capable
of rotating about its own axis at a specified speed.

• The length of the rotary kiln may vary anything from 30 metres to 200 metres.

• The kiln is fired from the lower end. The fuel is either powered coal, oil or natural
gas.
Step 5- By the time the material rolls down to the lower end of the rotary kiln, the dry
material undergoes a series of chemical reactions, finallyturns into nodular form of size 3
mm to 20 mm known as clinker.

Step 6 - The clinker drops into a rotary cooler where it is cooled under controlled
conditions . The clinker is stored in silos or bins. The clinker weighs about 1100 to 1300 gms
per liter.

Step 8 - The cooled clinker is then ground in a ball mill with the addition of 3 to 5 per cent
of gypsum in order to prevent flash-setting of the cement. In ball mill the mixture is
crushed into required fineness.
Step 9 - The particles crushed to the
required fineness are separated by
currents of air and taken to storage
silos from where the cement is
bagged or filled into barrels for bulk
supply to dams or other large work
sites.
DRY PROCESS
In the dry process the raw materials are crushed dry and
fed in correct proportions into a grinding mill where they
are dried and reduced to a very fine powder.

• The dry powder is further blended and corrected for its

right composition and mixed by means of compressed air.

• The aerated powder tends to behave almost like liquid

and in about one hour of aeration a uniform mixture is
obtained.

•The blended powder is further sieved and fed into a

rotating disc called granulator.

•Then the mixture is allowed to pass through rotary kiln.

• From rotary kiln the mixture is send to clinker grinder to crush into required fineness.

• The particles crushed to the required are taken to storage silos from where the cement
is bagged or filled into barrels for bulk supply to dams or other large work sites.
Advantage of Dry Process over Wet Process

• The equipment used in the dry process kiln is comparatively smaller.

• The process is quite economical.
• The total consumption of coal in this method is only about 100 kg when compared to
the requirement of about 350 kg for producing a ton of cement in the wet process.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT
Following are the important properties of a good cement which primarily
depend upon its chemical composition, thoroughness of burning and fineness of
grinding:
•It gives strength to the masonry.

•It is an excellent binding material.

•It is easily workable.

•It offers good resistance to the moisture.

•It possess a good plasticity.

•It stiffens or hardens early.

TYPES OF CEMENT
•Ordinary Portland Cement
- Ordinary Portland Cement 33 Grade
- Ordinary Portland Cement 43 Grad
- Ordinary Portland Cement 53 Grade

• Rapid Hardening Cement • Coloured Cement: White Cement

• Extra Rapid Hardening Cement • Hydrophobic Cement

• Sulphate Resisting Cement • Masonry Cement

• Portland Slag Cement • Expansive Cement

• Quick Setting Cement • Oil Well Cement

• Super Sulphated Cement • Rediset Cement

• Low Heat Cement • Concrete Sleeper grade Cement

• Portland Pozzolana Cement • High Alumina Cement

• Air Entraining Cement • Very High Strength Cement

ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most important and common type of cement.
The OPC was classified into three grades, namely 33 grade, 43 grade and 53 grade depending
upon the strength of the cement at 28 days when tested as per IS 4031-1988.

If the 28 days strength is not less than 33N/mm2, it is called 33 grade cement, if the
strength is not less than 43N/mm2, it is called 43 grade cement, and if the strength is not less
than 53 N/mm2, it is called 53 grade cement.

RAPID HARDENING CEMENT

This cement is similar to ordinary Portland cement. As the name indicates it develops
strength rapidly and as such it may be more appropriate to call it as high early strength cement.
Rapid hardening cement develops at the age of three days, the same strength as that is
expected of ordinary Portland cement at seven days.

The use of rapid heading cement is recommended in the following situations:

• In pre-fabricated concrete construction.

• Where formwork is required to be removed early for re-use elsewhere,

• Road repair works

SULPHATE RESISTING CEMENT

Ordinary Portland cement is susceptible to the attack of sulphates, in particular to

the action of magnesium which is known as sulphate attak.
This cement has a high silicate content. The specification generally limits the C3A content to
5 per cent.
The use of sulphate resisting cement is recommended under the following conditions:
•Concrete to be used in marine condition;
• Concrete to be used in foundation and basement, where soil is infested with sulphates;
• Concrete to be used in the construction of sewage treatment works.

PORTLAND SLAG CEMENT (PSC)

The manufacture of blast furnace slagcement has been developed primarily to

utilize blast furnace slag, a waste product from blastfurnaces. The rate of hardening of
Portland blast furnace slag cement in mortar or concrete is slower than that of ordinary
Portland cement during the first 28 days, after 12 months the strength becomes close to or
even exceeds those of Portland cement.
The major advantagescurrently recognized are:
• Reduced heat of hydration;
• Refinement of pore structure;
• Reduced permeability;
• Increased resistance to chemical attack.
QUICK SETTING CEMENT
This cement as the name indicates sets very early. The early setting property is
brought out by reducing the gypsum content at the time of clinker grinding. This cement is
required to be mixed, placed and compacted very early. It is used mostly in under water
construction.
The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cementis that quick
setting cement sets earlier while rate of gain of strength is similar to Ordinary Portland Cement,
while rapid hardening cement gains strength quickly. Formworks in both cases can be removed
earlier.

LOW HEAT CEMENT

Formation of cracks in large body of concrete due to heat of hydration has focused
the attention of the concrete technologists to produce a kind of cement which produces less
heat, at a low rate during the hydration process.
This cement can be used in mass concrete construction, such as dams, where temperature rise
by the heat of hydration can become excessively large.

COLOURED CEMENT
Coloured cement consists of Portland cement with 5-10 per cent of pigment. For
manufacturing various coloured cements either white cement or grey Portland cement is used
as a base
Uses -These cements are used for making terrazzo flooring, face plaster of walls (stucco),
ornamental works, and casting stones.
EXPANSIVE CEMENT
Cement of this type has been developed by using an expanding agent and a
stabilizer very carefully. Proper material and controlled proportioning are necessary in order to
obtain the desired expansion. Cement used for grouting anchor bolts or grouting machine
foundations or the cement used in grouting the pre-stress concrete ducts.

OIL-WELL CEMENT
Oil-wells are drilled through stratified sedimentary rocks through a great depth in
search of oil. It is likely that if oil is struck, oil or gas may escape through the space between the
steel casing and rock formation. Cement slurry is used to seal off the annular space between
steel casing and rock strata and also to seal off any other fissures or cavities in the sedimentary
rock layer.
The desired properties of Oil-well cement can be obtained by adjusting the compound
composition of cement or by adding retarders to ordinary Portland cement. The commonest
agents are starches or cellulose products or acids.

REDISET CEMENT
Properties of “Rediset”
•The cement allows a handling time of just about 8 to 10 minutes.
•The strength pattern is similar to that of ordinary Portland cement mortar or concreteafter one
day or 3 days. What is achieved with “REDISET” in 3 to 6 hours can beachieved with normal
concrete only after 7 days.
“REDISET” releases a lot of heat which is advantageous in winter concreting but excess heat
liberation is detrimental to mass concrete.
The rate of shrinkage is fast but the total shrinkage is similar to that of ordinary Portland
cement concrete.
“REDISET” can be used for:
•Very-high-early (3 to 4 hours) strength concrete and mortar,
•Patch repairs and emergency repairs,
•Quick release of forms in the precast concrete products industry,
•Construction between tides.

USES OF CEMENT
At present, the cement is widely used in the construction of various engineering
structures. It has proved to be one of the leading engineering material of modern times
and has no rivals in production and applications. Following are the possible uses of
cement:
•Cement motor for masonry work, plaster, pointing, etc.
•Cement for lying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather sheds, stairs,
pillars, etc.
•Construction of important engineering structures such as bridges culverts, dams, tunnels,
storage reservoirs, light houses, docks, etc.
•Construction of Water tanks, wells, tennis court, septic tanks, Lamp Posts, roads,
telephone cabins, etc.
•Making joints for drains, pipes, etc.
•Manufacture of pre-cast pipes, piles, garden seats, artistically designed urns, flower pots,
etc.
Preparation of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc.
TESTS FOR CEMENT
Testing of cement can be brought under two categories:
 Field testing
 Laboratory testing

FIELD TESTING

It is sufficient to subject the cement to field tests when it is used for minor works. The
following are the field tests:

•Open the bag and take a good look at the cement. There should not be any visible lumps.
The colour of the cement should normally be greenish grey.

•Cement bag must give you a cool feeling. There should not be any lump inside.

•Take a pinch of cement and feel-between the fingers. It should give a smooth and not a
gritty feeling.

•Take a handful of cement and throw it on a bucket full of water, the particles should float
for some time before they sink.

If a sample of cement satisfies the above field tests it may be concluded that the
cement is not bad. The above tests do not really indicate that the cement is really good for
important works.
LABORATORY TESTING
For using cement in important and major workstest the cement in the laboratory
to confirm the requirements of the Indian Standard specifications with respect to its
physical and chemical properties.
The following tests are usually conducted in the laboratory.
oFineness test
oSetting time test
oSoundness test
oStrength test
oHeat of hydration test
oChemical composition test

FINENESS TEST
This test is carried to check proper grinding of cement. The fineness of cement
particles may be determined either bysieve test or by permeability apparatus test.
Sieve Test -The cement weighing 100 gm is taken and it is continuously passed for 1 minutes
through the standard BIS sieve no 9. The residue is then weighed and this weight should not
be more than 10 percent of original weight.
Permeability Apparatus Test- Specific surface area of cement particle is calculated. Specific
surface, i.e. Total surface area in cm2per gram or m2per kilogram of cement. It gives an idea
of uniformity of fineness. The specific surface of cement should not be less than
2250cm2/gm.
SETTING TIME TEST
For finding out initialsetting time, final setting time and soundness of cement,
and strength a parameter known as standard consistency test has to be used.Standard
consistency test is done using vicatapparitus.
This test can be also used to estimate the percentage water requirement of the
cement paste.

This test can be also used to estimate the percentage water requirement of the cement
paste.
vicatapparatusTest Procedure
• 300 g of cement is mixed with 25 per cent water.

• The paste is filled in the mould of Vicat’s apparatus and the surface
of the filled paste is smoothened and levelled.

• A square needle 10 mm x 10 mm attached to the plunger is then

lowered gently over the cement paste surface and is released quickly.

• The plunger pierces the cement paste.

• The reading on the attached scale is recorded. When the reading is

5-7 mm from the bottom of themould, the amount of water added is
considered to be the correct percentage of water for normal
consistency.
Determination of initial and final setting times

The initial setting time may be defined as the time taken by the paste to stiffen to
such an extent that the Vicat’s needle is not permitted to move down through the paste to
within 5 ± 0.5 mm measured from the bottom of the mould.
The final setting time is the needle, under standard weight, fails to leave any mark on
the hardened concrete.

SOUNDNESS TEST
The purpose of this test is to detect the uncombined lime. It is a very important test
since an unsound cement produces cracks, distortion and disintegration, ultimately leading to
failure.
The uncombined lime in cement is a result of either under burning the clinker or of
excess lime in the raw materials. Freshly ground cement is often unsound due to the presence
of uncombined lime. This test is carried using Le Chatelier apparatus.

Le Chatelier apparatus Test Procedure

•The mould is placed on a glass sheet and is filled with cement paste formed by gauging 100 g.

•The specimens are removed from moulds and they are submerged in clean water for curing.

•The cubes are then tested in compression testing machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days. The
testing cubes is carried out on their three sides without packing.
•The three cubes are tested each time to find out the compressive strength at the end of
3 days and 7 days. the average value is then worked out.

•The compressive strength at the end of 3 days should not be less than 11kg/cm 2or 11.50
N/mm2and at the end of 7 days should not be less than 175 kg/cm 2or 17.50 N/mm2 .
Tensile strength Test
•The tensile strength may be determined by Briquette test method
or by splittensile strength test.
• The mortar of cement and sand is prepared. The proportion is
1:3 ( 1 percent cement and 3 percent sand).

•The quantity of water is 8 per cent by weight of cement and

sand.
• The mortar is placed in briquette mould. The mould is filled with mortar and then a small
heap of mortar is formed at its top. It is beaten down by a standard spatula till water
appears on the surface. same procedure is repeated for the other face of briquette.
such twelve standard briquettes are prepared. The briquettes are kept in a damp cabin for
24 hours.
• The briquettes are carefully removed from the moulds and they are submerged in clean
water for curing.
• The briquettes are tested in testing machine at the end of 3 days and 7 days. Six briquettes
are tested and average is found out.
• It may be noted that cross sectional area of briquette at its least section is 6.45 cm 2. Hence
the ultimate tensile stress of cement paste is obtained from following relation:

Ultimate tensile stress = Failing load / 6.45

• The tensile stress should not be less than 0 kg/cm 2 or 2 N/mm2 and at the end of 7 days
should not be less than 5 kg/cm2 or 2.50N/mm2.
HEAT OF HYDRATION TEST
Heat is evolved during hydration of cement, the amount being dependent on the
relative quantities of the clinker compounds. The evolution of heat causes an increase in
temperature of the concrete. There will be temperature differences in the surfaces of
concrete. The temperature of interior will be higher than the exterior as exterior surface is
exposed to atmosphere. Due to this temperature difference stress may occur in the surfaces
of concrete, this stress can lead to cracks.

To prevent these cracks hydration test is to be done to the cement before

construction works starts. The apparatus used to determine the heat of hydration of cement
is known as calorimeter.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION TEST

Various test are carried out to determine the chemical composition of cement.
Following are the chemical requirements of ordinary cement as per BIS: 269 - 1975:

• Ratio of percentage of alumina to that of iron oxide shold not be less than 0.66
Lime saturation factor (LSF) should not be less than 0.66 and it should not be greater than
1.02. ( LSF - ratio of percentage of lime to those of alumina, iron oxide, and silica)
• Total loss on ignition should not be greater than 4 percent.
• Total sulphur content should not be greater than 2.75 percent
• Weight of insoluble solid should not be greater than 1.50 per cent.
• Weight of magnesia should not exceed 5 percent.
CEMENT MORTAR
Cement mortar can be prepared by mixing cement, sand and water in desired
proportions. Cement Mortars are used for plastering, rendering smooth finishes and damp
proof courses.
MIX PROPORTIONS
TYPE OF CEME SAND
WORK NT
Masonry 1 4- 5
Plastering
1 4
Interior
1 5-6
Exterior
Foundation 1 3-4
PLASTERING
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings
and other building components with a thin coat of mortar to form a smooth double
surface.Cement mortar is the best mortar for external plastering work. Plastering can be
also named as rendering.

Plastering Composition
CEMENT + SAND
The mix proportion may vary from 1:4 to 1:6. Sands used for plastering should
be clean, coarse and angular. Before mixing water, dry mixing is thoroughly done. When
water is mixed, the mortar should be used within 30 mins of mixing.
Concrete
Concrete is a construction material composed of cement, fine aggregates (sand) and coarse
aggregates mixed with water which hardens with time. Portland cement is the commonly
used type of cement for production of concrete.
Concrete is a mixture of paste and aggregates (sand & rock). The paste, composed
of cement and water, coats the surface of the fine (sand) and coarse aggregates (rocks) and
binds them together into a rock-like mass known as concrete.
Concrete composition
There are three basic ingredients in the concrete mix:
Portland Cement
+
Water
+
Aggregates (rock and sand)
AGGREGATES
Aggregates are inert or chemically inactive materials. These aggregates are bound
together by means of cement. The nature of work decide the size of aggregates.
For thin slab and walls the maximum size of coarse aggregates should be limited to one third
the thickness section of concrete.
Aggregates Source
Almost all natural aggregate materials originate from bed rocks. There are three
kinds of rocks, namely, igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic.Most of the aggregates are
naturally occurring aggregates such as crushed rocks, gravels and sand. Artificial and
processed aggregates may be broken bricks or churched air cooled blast furnace slag.
Classification of Aggregates
Aggregated can be classified based on weight and size.

Classification based on weight Classification based on

size
Normal weight aggregates Natural Fine aggregates

Artificial

Light weight aggregates Coarse aggregates

Heavy weight aggregates.

Fine aggregates
Aggregates less than 4.75mm are known as fine aggregates. Fine aggregates should
pass through BIS sieve no 40. Fine aggregates is usually found in river beds. Finely churched
stone can be also used instead of river sand.

Coarse aggregates
Aggregates greater than 4.75mm are known as coarse aggregates. The materials which
is retained on BIS test sieve no 480 is termed as coarse aggregates.

Aggregates Shape
The shape of aggregates is an important characteristic since it affects the workability
of concrete.
The shape of the aggregate is very much influenced by the type of crusher and the
reduction ratio i.e., the ratio of size of material fed into crusher to the size of the finished
product.
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SHAPE OF PARTICLES
Rounded River or seashore
gravels;

Irregular or Partly Pit sands and

rounded gravels; land or dug
flints; cuboid rock
Angular Crushed rocks of all
types;

Flaky Laminated rocks

Aggregates Size
Aggregate size selection depends upon the size of aggregate practicable to
handleunder a given set of conditions.
80 mm size is the maximum size that could be conveniently used for concrete making.
Using the possible size will help in
(i) reduction of the cement content
(ii) reduction in water requirement
(iii) reduction of drying shrinkage.
The selection of size of aggregate may be limited by the following conditions:
(i ) Thickness of section;
(ii ) Spacing of reinforcement;
(iii ) Clear cover;
(iv ) Mixing, handling and placing techniques.
Grading of aggregates
Grading of aggregates are determination of particle size distribution of
aggregates at the end of sieve test. The aggregate particle size is determined by using
wire-mesh sieves with square openings. Grading of aggregates is an important factor for
concrete mix design. These affect the concrete strength as well as durability.

Sieve Analysis
The sieve analysis is conducted to determine the particle size distribution in a
sample of aggregate, which we call gradation.

Aggregates Sampling
The process of taking a sample of aggregate that is truly representative of the
nature and condition of the aggregate in the stockpile bin or in the place source of
material is called aggregate sampling.

Proportioning Concrete
The process of selection of relative proportions of cement, sand, coarse
aggregate and water to obtain a concrete of desired quality is known as proportioning
concrete.
•The proportion of concrete should be made in a way to have following qualities,
•Concrete should have enough workability.
•Concrete must possess maximum density, in other words it should be strongest and most
water tight.
The cost of materials and labour required to form concrete should be minimum.
There are different methods of proportioning concrete mixes.
• Arbitrary method
• Minimum void method
• Maximum density method
• Fineness modulus and water cement ratio method

Arbitrary Method
In this method the proportion of cement, sand and coarse aggregates are fixed
arbitrarily such as 1:4 or 1:3:6 etc, depending on the nature of work.
Minimum void Method
In this method, the voids of coarse aggregates and fine aggregates are
determined separately to get the dense of concrete.
Through the minimum void method quantity of fine aggregate, cement and
sufficient water required for concrete mix can be obtained.
Maximum Density Method
This method is based on the principle that the densest concrete is achieved by
proportioning its aggregates in such a manner that heaviest weight of concrete for the
same volume is obtained. A box is filled with varying proportions of fine and coarse
aggregates. The proportion which gives heaviest weight is then adopted.
Fineness Modulus Method
In this method fineness modulus of sand and aggregates is determined by the
standard tests. The standard test for fineness modulus are carried out with the help of BIS
sieves.
Water-cement ratio
Water-cement ratio is the water used to the quantum of cement in the mixture
by weight. The water-cement ratio (w/c) is the major factors influencingWorkability the
strength of concrete and hardening cement paste.
For proper workability thew/c ratio varies from 0.4–0.6.

Workability of concrete
The term workability is used to describe the ease or difficulty with which the
concrete is handled, transported and placed between the forms. Slump test is used to find
the workability of concrete.
The important facts in connection with workability are as follow:
•If more water is added to attain the degree of workmanship, it results into concrete of low
strength and poor durability.
•If the strength of concrete is not to be affected, the degree of workability can be obtained
•By slightly changing the proportions of fine and coarse aggregates, in case the concrete
mixture is too wet
•By adding small quantity of water cement paste in the proportion of original mix, in case
concrete is too dry.
•A concrete mixture for one work may prove to be too stiff or too wet for another work. For
instance, the stiff concrete mixture will be required in case of vibrated concrete work while
wet concrete mixture will be required for thin sections containing reinforcing bars.
•The workability of concrete is also affected by grading, shape, texture and maximum size
of coarse aggregates to be used in the mixture.
Stages in concrete construction
Different stages in concrete construction are
•Formwork
•Mixing
•Transportation
•Placing Concrete
•Compacting concrete
•Curing

Formwork
Formwork is the term used for the process of creating a temporary mould into
which concrete is poured and formed. Formwork are classified as wooden, plywood,
steel, combined wood-steel. Timber is most commonly used formwork.

A good form work should satisfy the following requirements:

•The materials of the form work should be cheap and it should be suitable for reuse of
several times.
•It should be water proof, so that it does not absorb water from concrete.
•It should be strong enough to withstand all loads coming on it.
•It should be stiff enough so that deflection should be minimum.
•The form work should be clean, smooth, and it should afford easy stripping.
•All joints should be leak proof.
 Mixing
The operation of manufacture of concrete is called mixing. Mixing can be done be
two methods
1. Hand Mixing
2. Machine Mixing
Hand Mixing
In this method, mixing is done manually on a steel plate 2 m X 2 m in size or on a
clean hard surface. This method can be adopted when small quantity of concrete is
required.
Machine Mixing

A concrete mixer is a device that

homogeneously mix cement, aggregates, and
water to form concrete. A typical concrete
mixers uses a revolving drum to mix the
components. Concrete mixers of several
designs and capacities are available.

For smaller volume works, portable concrete

mixers are often used so that the concrete
can be made at the construction site. For
heavy works concrete can be made outside
the site (Batching Plant).
Transportation
There are many modes to transport concert. Different modes are shown below:
•Wheelbarrow or motorized buggy
•Truck mixer
•Bucket or steel skip
•Chute
•Belt conveyor
•Concrete pump
•Pneumatic placer

Placing Concrete
The concrete should be placed and compacted before its setting starts.The
method of placing concrete should be such as to prevent segregation. It should not be
dropped from a height more than one meter. In case, placing of concrete is likely to take
some time it should be kept in an agitated condition..

Compacting concrete
The compaction of concrete can be carried out usingsimple tamping rods or
boards, or alternatively it can be carriedout with the aid of plant such as vibrators.
Poker Vibrators ~ these consist of a hollow steel tube casingcontaining a rotating
impeller which generates vibrations as itshead comes into contact with the casing.
Curing
Curing is one of the most essential operation in which concrete is kept
continuously damp for some days to enable the concrete to gain more strength. The curing
period depends upon the atmospheric conditions such as temperature, humidity and wind
velocity. The normal curing period is between 7 and 10 days.
There are several methods of curing, which are given below:
Covering the exposed surface with al layer of sacking, canvas or similar absorbent material.
Impounding water in earthen or sandy bunds in squares over the flooring. Curing with a
steam of hot water, resulting in rapid development of strength.

Cement and concrete finishes

There are different types of cement and concrete finishes. They are
•Roughcast Finish
•Dr dash finish
•Textured Finish
•Stucco
Roughcast Finish
In this method, the mortar for final coat contains fine sand as well as coarse
aggregate in the ratio 1:: 3 ( Cement : Sand : Aggregates).
•The coarse aggregates may vary from 3 mm to 12mm in size.
•The mortar is dashed against the prepared plastered surface by means of large trowel.
•The surface is then roughly finished using a wooden float.
• Such a finish is water proof, durable, and resistant to cracking and may be used for
exterior rendering.
Dry dash Finish
•Dry dash is also known as pebble dash.
•In this the final coat having cement: sand mix proportion of 1: 3 is applied in 12mm
thickness.
•Clean pebble of size varying from 10 to 0 mm size are then dashed against the surface, so
that they are held in position.
•The pebbles may be lightly pressed into the mortar, with the help of wooden float.

Textured Finish
•This is used with stucco plastering. Ornamental patters or textured surfaces are on the final
coat of stucco plastering, by working with suitable tools.

Stucco
•Stucco is the name given to an excellent decorative plaster used on both interior and
exterior walls.
•Stucco is generally laid in three coats in total thickness of about 25mm.
•The first coat known as scratch or rough coat, function to bond with the wall and provides
strength.
•The second coat known as finer or brown coat, provides desired shape to the surface.
•The third coat called final or finishing coat affords the required texture, smoothness and
decorative appearance to the plastered surface.
ater proofing and damp proofing of concrete

OUNDATION
BASEMENT
FLOORING