Operating
Systems:
Internals
and
Chapter 1
Design Computer
Principles
System Overview
Eighth Edition
By William Stallings
Operating System
Manages hardware resources and
software
Manages secondary memory and I/O
devices
Provides a set of services to system users
A modern computer
system
Basic Elements
I/O
Proces Module
sor s
Main System
Memor Bus
y
Processor
Performs the
Controls the
data
operation of
processing
the computer
functions
Referred to as
the Central
Processing
Unit (CPU)
Main Memory
Volatile
Contentsof the memory is
lost when the computer is
shut down
Referredto as real memory
or primary memory
I/O Modules
storage (e.g.
hard drive)
Moves data
between the
computer communicatio
and external ns equipment
environments
such as:
terminals
System Bus
Provides
for
communication among
processors, main
memory, and I/O
modules
Instruction Execution
A program consists of a set of
instructions stored in memory
processor reads
processor
(fetches)
executes each
instructions from
instruction
memory
Two steps
Instruction Fetch
and Execute
Theprocessor fetches the instruction
from memory
Program counter (PC) holds address of
the instruction to be fetched next
PC is incremented after each fetch
Instruction Register
(IR)
Processor interprets
Fetched instruction is
loaded into the instruction and
Instruction Register performs required
(IR) action:
Processor-
memory
Processor-I/O
Data processing
Control
Interrupts
Interrupt
– a signal to the processor emitted by
hardware/software indicating an event needs
immediate attention.
Interrupt the normal sequencing of the
processor
Software interrupts, hardware interrupts
Provided to improve processor utilization
most I/O devices are slower than the processor
processor must pause to wait for device
wasteful use of the processor
Table 1.1 Classes of Interrupts
Program Generated by some condition that occurs
as a result of an instruction execution, such as
arithmetic overflow, division by zero, attempt to
execute an illegal machine instruction, and reference
outside a user's allowed memory space.
Known as traps/exceptions.
Timer Generated by a timer within the processor. This
allows the operating system to perform certain
functions on a regular basis.
I/O Generated by an I/O controller, to signal normal
completion of an operation or to signal a
variety of error conditions.
Hardware Generated by a failure, such as power failure or
memory
Traps vs Interrups
PSW – Program Status
Word
Memory Hierarchy
Major constraints in memory
amount
speed
expense
Memory must be able to keep up with the
processor
Cost of memory must be reasonable in
relationship to the other components
Memory Relationships
Faster Greater
access capacity =
time = smaller cost
greater per bit Greater
cost per capacity =
bit slower
access speed
The Memory Hierarchy
Going down the
hierarchy:
decreasing cost per
bit
increasing capacity
increasing access time
decreasing frequency
of access to the
memory by the
Second
ary
Memory
Also referred
to as
auxiliary
memory
• external
• nonvolatile
• used to store
program and
data files
Cache Memory
Invisible to the OS
Interacts with other memory management hardware
Processor must access memory at least once per
instruction cycle
Processor execution is limited by memory cycle time
Exploit the principle of locality with a small, fast
memory
I/O Techniques
∗ When the processor encounters an instruction
relating to I/O, it executes that instruction by
issuing a command to the appropriate I/O
module
Three techniques are possible for I/O
operations:
Programme Direct
d I/O Interrupt-
Memory
Driven I/O
(Polling) Access (DMA)
I/O Techniques
Programmed I/O
The I/O module performs the requested
action then sets the appropriate bits in the
I/O status register
The processor periodically checks the
status of the I/O module until it determines
the instruction is complete
With programmed I/O the performance
level of the entire system is severely
degraded
Interrupt-Driven I/O
Processor
issues an
I/O The
command processor
to a module executes the
and then data transfer
goes on to and then
do some resumes its
other useful former
work processing
The I/O module More efficient than
will then interrupt Programmed I/O
the processor to but still requires
request service active intervention
when it is ready to of the processor to
exchange data transfer data
with the processor between memory
and an I/O module
Direct Memory Access
(DMA)
∗ Performed by a separate module on the system
bus or incorporated into an I/O module
When the processor wishes to read or write
data it issues a command to the DMA module
containing:
• whether a read or write is requested
• the address of the I/O device involved
• the starting location in memory to read/write
• the number of words to be read/written
Direct Memory Access
Transfers the entire block of data
directly to and from memory without
going through the processor
processor is involved only at the beginning and
end of the transfer
processor executes more slowly during a transfer
when processor access to the bus is required
Moreefficient than interrupt-driven or
programmed I/O
Approaches to parallel
processing
Symmetric Multiprocessors
Multicore
Clusters
Symmetric Multiprocessors
(SMP)
Symmetric Multiprocessors
(SMP)
A stand-alone computer system with
the following characteristics:
two or more similar processors of comparable capability
processors share the same main memory and are
interconnected by a bus or other internal connection
scheme
processors share access to I/O devices
all processors can perform the same functions
the system is controlled by an integrated operating system
that provides interaction between processors and their
programs at the job, task, file, and data element levels
SMP Advantages
Performance Scaling
• a system with multiple • vendors can offer a
processors will yield range of products with
greater performance if different price and
work can be done in performance
parallel characteristics
Availability Incremental Growth
• the failure of a single • an additional processor
processor does not halt can be added to
the machine enhance performance
Multicore Computer
Also known as a chip multiprocessor
Combines two or more processors
(cores) on a single piece of silicon (die)
each core consists of all of the
components of an independent processor
Dual-core design with 2 cores on the same
chip
Clusters
Group of interconnected (by high-speed
LAN) , whole computers working
together as a unified computing
resource
Illusion is one machine
System can run on its own
Summary
Basic Elements Cache memory
Evolution of the Direct memory
microprocessor access
Instruction execution Multiprocessor and
Interrupts multicore
Interrupts and the organization
instruction cycle Symmetric
Interrupt processing multiprocessors
Multiple interrupts Multicore computers
The memory hierarchy Clusters
REVIEW QUESTIONS
A) What are interrupts? What is the purpose of interrupts?
What happens when there is an interrupt? Give a specific
example of an interrupt and its purpose.
B) Describe in your words the following I/O techniques :
Programmed I/O, Interrupt-driven I/O, Direct memory
access (DMA)
C) Cache Memory – Why do we need the cache when we
already have RAM? Is there an ideal size for a cache
memory?
