Topic A: Space, Time and Motion

A.2b – Momentum
Guiding Questions:

How can forces acting on a system be represented both

visually and algebraically?

How can Newton’s laws be modelled mathematically?

How can knowledge of forces and momentum be used

to predict the behaviour of interacting bodies?
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Understandings:
• linear momentum as given by p = mv remains constant
unless the system is acted upon by a resultant external
force
• a resultant external force applied to a system
constitutes an impulse
• the applied external impulse equals the change in
momentum of the system
• Newton’s second law in the form F = ma assumes
mass is constant whereas F = Δp allows for situations
where mass is changing
• the elastic and inelastic collisions of two bodies
• explosions
• energy considerations in elastic collisions, inelastic
collisions, and explosions
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Guidance:
• The use of simultaneous equations involving
conservation of momentum and energy in collisions
is not required.

• A quantitative approach to collisions and explosions

is for one-dimensional situations for standard level
students and for two-dimensional situations for
higher level students.
Topic 2: Mechanics
2.4 – Momentum and impulse
Data booklet reference:
•
•
•
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Linking Questions:
• How do collisions between charge carriers and the
atomic cores of a conductor result in thermal energy
transfer?
• How are concepts of equilibrium and conservation
applied to understand matter and motion from the
smallest atom to the whole universe?
• In which way is conservation of momentum relevant
to the workings of a nuclear power station?
• What assumptions about the forces between
molecules of gas allow for ideal gas behaviour?
(NOS)
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum
Linear momentum, p, is defined to be the product of
an object’s mass m with its velocity v.
p = mv linear momentum
Its units are obtained directly from the formula and are
kg m s-1.
EXAMPLE: What is the linear momentum
of a 4.0-gram NATO SS 109 bullet
traveling at 950 m/s?
SOLUTION:
· Convert grams to kg (jump 3 decimal
places left) to get m = .004 kg.
· Then p = mv = (.004)(950) = 3.8 kg m s-1.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Newton’s second law in terms of momentum
p = mv linear momentum

· This last is Newton’s second law in terms of change in
momentum rather than mass and acceleration.

𝑝
𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Newton’s second law (p-form)
𝑡
EXAMPLE: A 6kg object increases its speed from 5 ms-1
to 25 m s-1 in 30 s. What is the net force acting on it?
SOLUTION:
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Kinetic energy in terms of momentum
𝑝 =𝑚𝑣 linear momentum
1
kinetic energy
2
𝐸 𝐾= 𝑚𝑣
2

EXAMPLE: Show that kinetic energy can be calculated

directly from the momentum using the following:
𝑝 2 kinetic energy
𝐸 𝐾=
2𝑚
SOLUTION:
From we obtain . Then
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Kinetic energy in terms of momentum
𝑝 2
𝐸 𝐾 =
2 𝑚 kinetic energy
PRACTICE: What is the kinetic
energy of a 4.0-gram NATO SS 109
bullet traveling at 950 m/s and having
a momentum of 3.8 kg m s-1?
SOLUTION: Start from scratch using
or you can use
Let’s use the new formula…

J
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Collisions
A collision is an event in which a relatively strong
force acts on two or more bodies for a relatively short
time.
The Meteor Crater in
the state of Arizona
was the first crater to
be identified as an
impact crater.
Between 20,000 to
50,000 years ago, a
small asteroid about
80 feet in diameter impacted the Earth and formed the
crater.
 Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Collisions FYI
Consider two colliding pool balls… A system
boundary is the
“area of
interest” used
“Before” by physicists in
system the study of
phase
boundary complex
“During” processes.
system
phase A closed
boundary
system has no
“After” work done on
system
phase its parts by
boundary
external forces.
 Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Collisions
If we take a close-up look at a collision between two
bodies, we can plot the force acting on each mass
during the collision vs. the time :
vAi vBi “Before”
A B F
phase During
Before After
FAB FBA
A B
t
“During”
FAB A B FBA
phase
FAB FBA FYI
A B
Note the perfect
vAf vBf “After” symmetry of the action-
A B
phase reaction force pairs.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
Although the force varies

Force
with time, we can simplify it
by “averaging it out” as follows: F
Imagine an ant farm (two t
sheets of glass with sand in ∆t
between) filled with the sand in the shape of the above
force curve:
We now let the sand level itself out (by tapping or
shaking the ant farm):
The area of the rectangle is the same as the area
under the original force vs. time curve.
The average force F is the height of this rectangle.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum

Force
Impulse and force – time graphs
We define a new quantity F
called impulse J as the t
average force times the time. ∆t

Force
This amounts to the area t
under the force vs. time graph.
area under F vs. t graph impulse
Since we see that and so we can interpret the impulse
as the change in momentum of the object during the
collision.

= area under F vs. t graph impulse

Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
J = F ∆t = p = area under F vs. t graph impulse
It is well to point out here
that during a collision there F
are two objects interacting t
with one another.
Because of Newton’s third F
law, the forces are equal but opposite so that F = - F.
Thus for one object, the area (impulse or momentum
change) is positive, while for the other object the area
(impulse or momentum change) is negative.
FYI
Thus impulse can be positive or negative.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
EXAMPLE: A 0.140-kg baseball comes in at 40.0 m/s,
strikes the bat, and goes back out at 50.0 m/s. If the
collision lasts 1.20 ms (a typical value), find the impulse
imparted to the ball from the bat during the collision.
SOLUTION:
v0 = -40 m s-1
p0 = -40( 0.14 )
Before p0 = -5.6 kg m s-1
We can use J = p:
J = pf – p0 vf = +50 m/s
= 7 – (- 5.6) pf = +50( 0.14 )
After p = +7 kg m s-1
= 12.6 Ns. f

FYI The units for impulse can also be kg m s-1.

Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
EXAMPLE: A 0.140-kg baseball comes in at 40.0 m/s,
strikes the bat, and goes back out at 50.0 m/s. If the
collision lasts 1.20 ms (a typical value), find the average
force exerted on the ball during the collision.
SOLUTION: We can use . Thus
Fmax
F
= 10500 N.

FYI
Fmax is even greater than F!
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Sketching and interpreting force – time graphs
J = F ∆t = p = area under F vs. t graph impulse
PRACTICE: A bat striking a ball imparts a force to it as
shown in the graph. Find the impulse.
SOLUTION:
· Break the graph into simple areas of rectangles and
triangles. 9
Force F / n
· A1 = (3)(9) = 13.5 N s
6
· A2 = (4)(9) = 36 N s
· A3 = (3)(9) = 13.5 N s 3

· Atot = A1 + A2 + A3 0
0 5 10
· A = 13.5 + 36 + 13.5 = 63 N s. Time t / s
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
EXAMPLE: T
How does a jet engine v
produce thrust?
SOLUTION:
The jet engine sucks u
in air (at about the speed
that the plane is flying through the air), heats it up, and
expels it at a greater velocity.
The momentum of the air changes since its velocity
does, and hence an impulse has been imparted to it by
the engine.
The engine feels an equal and opposite impulse.
Hence the engine creates a thrust.
Topic A: Space, Time and MotionThis is a 2-
A.2b – Momentum stage rocket.
The orange
Impulse and force – time graphs tanks hold fuel,
EXAMPLE: and the blue
Show that . tanks hold
oxidizer.
SOLUTION: The oxidizer is
From we have needed so that
the rocket works
(if v is constant). without air.

FYI
The equation is known as the rocket engine equation
because it shows us how to calculate the thrust of a
rocket engine.
The second example will show how this is done.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs T
EXAMPLE:
What is the purpose of the rocket nozzle?
SOLUTION:
In the combustion chamber the gas
particles have random directions.
The shape of the nozzle is such that
the particles in the sphere of combustion
are deflected in such a way that they all
come out antiparallel to the rocket.
This maximizes the impulse on the gases.
The rocket feels an equal and opposite (maximized)
impulse, creating a maximized thrust.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Impulse and force – time graphs
𝐹 =(
𝑡 )
𝑚
𝑣 rocket engine equation
EXAMPLE: A rocket engine consumes
fuel and oxidizer at a rate of 275 kg s-1
and used a chemical reaction that gives
the product gas particles an average
speed of 1250 ms-1. Find the thrust
produced by this engine.
SOLUTION:
The units of are kg s-1 so that
clearly = 275.
The speed v = 1250 ms-1 is given. Thus
.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
Recall Newton’s second law (p-form):
𝑝
𝐹 𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
𝑡
Newton’s second law (p-form)
If the net force acting on an object is zero, we have

In words, if the net force is zero, then the momentum

does not change – p is constant.
conservation of
If Fnet = 0 then p = CONST linear momentum
FYI If during a process a physical quantity does not
change, that quantity is said to be conserved.
 The
internal
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion forces
A.2b – Momentum cancel
Conservation of linear momentum
Recall that a system is a collection of more than one
body, mutually interacting with each other – for
example, colliding billiard balls:

Note that Fnet = Fexternal + Finternal.

But Newton’s third law guarantees that Finternal = 0.
Thus we can refine the conservation of momentum:
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it as it travels
by. Find the initial momentum
of the system.
SOLUTION: The system consists of sand and car:
p0,car = mcarv0,car = 2500(3) = 7500 kgms-1.
p0,sand = msandv0,sand = 1500(0) = 0 kgms-1.
p =p +p = 0 + 7500 kgms-1 = 7500 kgms-1.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 2500-kg gondola car
traveling at 3.0 ms-1 has 1500-kg
of sand dropped into it as it travels
by. Find the final speed of
the system.
SOLUTION: The initial and final momentums are equal:
p0 = 7500 kgms-1 = pf.
pf = (msand + mcar) vf = (2500 + 1500) vf = 4000 vf.
7500 = 4000 v  v = 1.9 ms-1.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 12-kg block of ice is struck by a hammer
so that it breaks into two pieces. The 4.0-kg piece
travels travels at +16 m s-1 in the x-direction. What is the
velocity of the other piece?
SOLUTION: Make before/after sketches! 8 4
· The initial momentum of the two is 0.
v 8 4 16
· From p = CONST we have p0 = pf.
· Since p = mv, we see that
(8 + 4)(0) = 8v + 4(16)  v = -8.0 m s-1.
 before after
25 0 vf
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
730 1800 730
A.2b – Momentum +1800
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A 730-kg Smart Car traveling at 25 m s-1 (x-
dir) collides with a stationary 1800-kg Dodge Charger.
The two vehicles stick together. Find their velocity
immediately after the collision.

SOLUTION: Make sketches!

· p0 = pf so that (730)(25) + 1800(0) = (730 + 1800)vf.
18250 = 2530vf  vf = = 7.2 m s-1.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A loaded Glock-22,
having a mass of 975 g, fires
a 9.15-g bullet with a muzzle
velocity of 300 ms-1.
Find the gun’s recoil velocity.
SOLUTION: Use p0 = pf. Then
p0 = pGlock,f + pbullet,f
975(0) = (975 – 9.15)v + (9.15)(-300)
0 = 965.85 v – 2745
-1
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Conservation of linear momentum
conservation of
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: A loaded Glock-22,
having a mass of 975 g, fires
a 9.15-g bullet with a muzzle
velocity of 300 ms-1.
Find the change in kinetic energy
of the gun/bullet system.
SOLUTION: Use EK = mv 2 so EK0 = 0 J. Then
J
J
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
In an elastic collision, kinetic energy is conserved (it
does not change). Thus EK,f = EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Two billiard balls colliding in such a way that the speeds
of the balls in the system remain unchanged.

The red ball has the same speed as the white ball…

Both balls have same speeds both before and after…

Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
In an inelastic collision, kinetic energy is not
conserved (it does change). Thus EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
A baseball and a hard wall colliding in such a way that
the speed of the ball changes.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
In a completely inelastic collision the colliding
bodies stick together and end up with the same
velocities, but different from the originals. EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Two objects colliding and sticking together.

u1 v u2 v
The train cars hitch and move as one body…

The cars collide and move (at first) as one body…

Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Comparing elastic collisions and inelastic collisions
 An explosion is similar to a completely inelastic
collision in that the bodies were originally stuck together
and began with the same velocities. EK,f ≠ EK,0.
EXAMPLE:
Objects at rest suddenly separating into two pieces.

A block of ice broken in two by a hammer stroke…

A bullet leaving a gun

Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. What is their final speed?
u1 v u2 v

SOLUTION: Use momentum conservation p0 = pf. Then

p1,0 + p2,0 = p1,f + p2,f
mu1 + mu2 = mv + mv
m(u1 + u2) = 2mv
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Find the change in kinetic energy.
u1 v u2 v

SOLUTION: Use EK = ½mv 2. Then

EK,f = ½(m + m) v 2
= ½(750 + 750) 7.5 2 = 42187.5 J.
EK,0 = ½(750) 10 2 + ½(750) 5 2 = 46875 J.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Determine the type of collision.
u1 v u2 v

SOLUTION:
Since EK,f ≠ EK,0, this is an inelastic collision.
Since the two objects travel as one (they are stuck
together) this is also a completely inelastic collision.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Was mechanical energy conserved?
u1 v u2 v

SOLUTION:
Mechanical energy E = EK + EP.
Since the potential energy remained constant and the
kinetic energy decreased, the mechanical energy was
not conserved.
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
If Fext = 0 then p = CONST conservation of
linear momentum
EXAMPLE: Two train cars having equal masses of 750
kg and velocities u1 = 10. m s-1 and u2 = 5.0 m s-1 collide
and hitch together. Was total energy conserved?
u1 v u2 v

SOLUTION:
Total energy is always conserved.
The loss in mechanical energy is EK = - 4700 J.
The energy lost is mostly converted to heat (there is
some sound, and possibly light, but very little).
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood
resting on a wood floor. How fast is the block/bullet
combo moving immediately after collision?
SOLUTION:
If we consider the bullet-block combo as our system,
there are no external forces in the x-direction at
collision. Thus pf = p0 so that
the bullet and the block
mvf + MVf = mvi + MVi
move at the same
.02v + 4 v = (.02)(300) + 4(0) speed after collision
4.02v = 6 (completely inelastic)
v = 1.5 m/s
Topic A: Space, Time and fMotion
A.2b – Momentum s
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood
resting on a wood floor. The block/bullet combo slides 6
m before coming to a stop. Find the friction f between
the block and the floor.
SOLUTION: Use the work-kinetic energy theorem:
∆EK = W
½mv 2 – ½mu 2 = f s cos 
½(4.02)(0)2 – ½(4.02)(1.5)2 = f (6) cos 180°
- 4.5225 = - 6f
f=
f = 0.75 N.
Topic A: Space, Time and fMotion
A.2b – Momentum s
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood
resting on a wood floor. The block/bullet combo slides 6
m before coming to a stop. Find the dynamic friction
coefficient µd between the block and the floor.
R
SOLUTION: Use f = µdR:
Make a free-body diagram to f
find R:
W
Note that R = W = mg
= (4.00 + 0.020)(10) = 40.2 N.
Thus
µd = = = 0.019.
 F s
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Quantitatively analysing inelastic collisions
EXAMPLE: Suppose a .020-kg bullet traveling
horizontally at 300. m/s strikes a 4.0-kg block of wood
resting on a wood floor. If the bullet penetrates .060 m of
the block, find the average force F acting on it during its
collision.
SOLUTION: Use the work-kinetic energy theorem on
only the bullet:
∆EK = W
½mv 2 – ½mu 2 = Fs cos 
½(.02)(1.5)2 – ½(.02)(300)2 = - F (.06)
- 900 = - 0.06F
F = 15000 N
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.2b – Momentum
Collisions in 2 Dimensions (HL only)
When solving problems where collisions result in 2D
motion, you can resolve the movement onto an x and y
axis and use conservation of momentum independently
for the two axes.
EXAMPLE: (Credit Hodder text p.70)
B
A stationary mass of 5.0 g explodes into
three particles.
A
A 1.5 g particle moves in direction A at
C
23 m s -1.

A 2.0 g particle moves in direction B, which is 60°to A, at

a speed of 18 m s-1.
Determine what happened to the third particle, C.
 B
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion 60°

A.2b – Momentum A
C
Collisions in 2 Dimensions (HL only)
Solution:
Before the explosion, the total momentum was 0, so
after the explosion the sum of the momenta in the x and
y direction must also be 0.
In the x direction,

(negative meaning downward)

In the y direction,

(negative meaning leftward)

 B
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion 60°

A.2b – Momentum A
C
Collisions in 2 Dimensions (HL only)
Solution:
With the x and y components of the momentum known
and the masses known, we can find speeds.

In the x direction, Cx
θ
Cy
In the y direction, C

Net velocity:
Topic A: Space, Time and Motion
A.4 – Rigid Body Mechanics
Resources

The books used in conjunction with these notes are:

Hodder DP Physics textbook, written by John Allum and

Paul Morris