Fundamentals of

Thermodynamics
Tutorial 29/10

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Dr Antonios Anastasiou

Department of Chemical Engineering

and Analytical Sciences

Manchester 2021
Open vs Closed systems
Mass in

Q<0

Open system Q>0

Mass exchange W<0

W>0

Mass out

Flow rates Useful relations

Mass flowrates , kg/s (M: molar mass, g/mol)
Molar flowrates , mol/s (c: velocity, m/s and A: cross sectional area)
Volumetric flowrate , m3/s (: density, kg/m3)
Mass balance – conservation of mass

•The partial mass balance includes the generation term (for substance i):

For substance i Mass in – Mass out + Generation-Consumption = Accumulation

∆ ˙𝑚𝑖, 𝐶𝑉
𝑚
˙ 𝑖 ,𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚
˙ 𝑖 ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑚
˙ 𝑖, 𝐺 − 𝑚
˙ 𝑖 , 𝐶=
∆𝑡
For nonreactive systems are zero.

•The general mass balance has not generation or consumption term:

Mass in – Mass out = Accumulation

∆ ˙𝑚𝐶𝑉
𝑚
˙ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚
˙ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
∆𝑡
Continuity equation for mass
Energy balance for open systems
Mass in (1)

Q<0 Macroscopic energy during fluid flow

Open system Q>0 ΔΕΜ=

Mass exchange W<0

Flow work is associated with the streams moving through
W>0 entrances and exits (only for the flowing fluid).

Mass out (2)

For the total energy of the fluid:

1 2 𝑃
Inlet streams ∑ (𝑢+ 2 𝑐 +𝑔𝑧 + 𝜌 )𝑚˙
𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

Microscopic energy Macroscopic energy u=internal energy/mass

1 2 𝑃
Outlet streams ∑ (𝑢+ 2 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧+ 𝜌 ) 𝑚˙
𝑜 𝑢𝑡
Energy balance for open systems
>0
1
𝑣=
𝜌
Mass in (1) Mass out (2)
Open system
in
Control volume out
Work done on the system (<0). Work done by the system (>0).

<0
This term includes any form
of work, but the flow work.

The general energy balance

∆( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
=𝑄
𝑖 𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 2 (
˙ 𝑠 + ∑ 𝑢+ 1 𝑐 2 +𝑔𝑧 + 𝑃𝑣 𝑚
˙ −𝑊
𝑜 𝑢𝑡
1 2
2 )
˙ − ∑ (𝑢+ 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧+ 𝑃𝑣) 𝑚
˙
Energy balance for open systems
Enthalpy h=u + Pv

∆( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
=𝑄 (
˙ 𝑠 + ∑ 𝑢+ 𝑃𝑣 + 1 𝑐 2 +𝑔𝑧 𝑚
˙ −𝑊
𝑖 𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 2 ) 𝑜 𝑢𝑡
1 2
˙ − ∑ (𝑢+ 𝑃𝑣+ 𝑐 +𝑔𝑧 ) 𝑚
2
˙

∆( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
=𝑄 (
˙ 𝑠 + ∑ h+ 1 𝑐2 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚
˙ −𝑊
𝑖 𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 2 ) 𝑜 𝑢𝑡
1 2
˙ − ∑ (h+ 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧) 𝑚
2
˙

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆
[( h+
1 2
2 )
𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚 ˙ −𝑊
˙ =𝑄
]
˙ 𝑠
Nozzles
Nozzles are specially designed devices utilized to convert pressure drop into kinetic energy.
• Due to high velocities involved no time to transfer heat between the fluid and the
surroundings (Q=0)

• No work is involved (W=0)

• The change in macroscopic potential energy is negligible (ΔEP=0)

• Change in macroscopic kinetic energy is significant

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆ ([ h+ 12 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 ) 𝑚˙ ]=𝑄˙ − 𝑊˙
2
𝑠

0 0 0 0

∆
[( h+
1 2
2
𝑐 )] =0 h 2 − h1 +
1
2
2 2
( 𝑐2 − 𝑐 1)=0 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏+
𝟏 𝟐
(𝒄 )=𝟎
𝟐 𝟐
If c2>>c1
Diffusers
Diffusers are devices that slow down the fluid and are very common in heating, ventilating and air
conditioning systems.
• Due to high velocities involved no time to transfer heat between the fluid and the
surroundings (Q=0)

• No work is involved (W=0)

• The change in macroscopic potential energy is negligible (ΔEP=0)

• Change in macroscopic kinetic energy is significant

∆
[( h+
1 2
2
𝑐 )] =0 h 2 − h1 +
1
2
2 2
( 𝑐2 − 𝑐 1)=0 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 −
𝟏 𝟐
(𝒄 )=𝟎
𝟐 𝟏
If c1>>c2
Turbines and Compressors
Turbines convert pressure to work.
Work is done on a shaft by a fluid. The fluid passing through
the turbine does a work against the blades, which are
attached to the shaft. Therefore, the shaft rotates and the
turbine produces work.

Compressors, pumps and fans convert work to pressure: Computation Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulation of water
turbine
they require power input.
•Fan: does work on a gas to give a slight increase in pressure to make it move
•Compressor: does work on a gas to increase its pressure
•Pump: does work on a liquid to increase its pressure (since most liquids are almost incompressible,
this usually makes them move).
Compressor
Example: Calculate the power (rate of doing W) that we need to provide to the following compressor.
We assume air in the ideal-gas state, as P1 << Pc,air = 3.77×103 kPa and T1 >> Tc,air = 132.5 K

Step 1: Apply the general energy balance for the compressor.

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆
[( h+
1 2
2
𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚)
˙ =𝑄
]
˙ −𝑊
˙ 𝑠 ( h𝑜𝑢𝑡 − h𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑚=
˙ ˙ −𝑊
𝑄 ˙ 𝑠

0 0 0

˙ −( h
˙ 𝑠= 𝑄 ˙ 𝑠= 𝑞𝑚
𝑊 𝑜𝑢𝑡 − h𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝑊 ˙ − ( h𝑜𝑢𝑡 − h𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑚
˙

˙ 𝑠=(16)( 0.02)− ( 400.98 − 280.13 ) 0.02

𝑊 h 𝑖𝑛=280.13 𝑘𝐽 /𝑘𝑔
˙ 𝑠=−2.737 𝑘𝐽 =−2.737 𝑘𝑊
𝑊 h 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =400.98 𝑘𝐽 /𝑘𝑔
𝑠
Throttling Valves
A throttling valve is a flow-restricting device that cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid. They
are an important component in most refrigeration systems, particularly in the last stage of the
liquefaction process. Throttling valves reduce pressure.

• Unlike turbines, no work is done: W = 0

• We assume that they are adiabatic: Q = 0
• 𝚫EK and 𝚫 EP are negligible (compared to enthalpic change).

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆ ([ h+ 12 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 ) 𝑚˙ ]=𝑄˙ − 𝑊˙
2
𝑠

0 0 0 0 0

h = u +Pv
hin = hout uin + RTin = uout + RTout
v=RT/P
Isenthalpic device

For an ideal gas, u = u(T), therefore if u(T)+RT is constant, then T is constant.

The temperature of an ideal-state gas does not change across a throttling valve.
Mixing chambers
A mixing chamber is the section of a given equipment where the mixing of fluids takes place.

• well insulated: Q = 0
Substance A Substance B
• do not involve any kind of work: W = 0.
• 𝚫EK and 𝚫EP of the fluid streams can be neglected. Mixture AB

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆
[( h+
1 2
2 )
𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚
]˙ −𝑊
˙ =𝑄 ˙ 𝑠

0 0 0 0 0

hin = hout

( h𝑖𝑛, 𝐴 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐴 + ( h𝑖𝑛 , 𝐵 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐵= ( h𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐴𝐵 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐴𝐵
𝑚
˙ 𝐵 h𝑖𝑛 , 𝐴 − h𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐴𝐵
=
˙ 𝐴 h 𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐴𝐵 −h𝑖𝑛 , 𝐵
𝑚
𝑚
˙ 𝐴+ 𝑚
˙ 𝐵 =𝑚
˙ 𝐴𝐵
Heat exchangers
In a heat exchanger two moving fluid streams exchange heat without
mixing.
•No work done
•Steady conditions
•The heat exchanger can be considered adiabatic

Case 1: Our system is the entire heat exchanger. Then Q=0 (adiabatic process- not heat exchange with
the surroundings).
∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆
[( h+
1 2
2 )
𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚
˙ =𝑄
]
˙ −𝑊
˙ 𝑠

0 0 0 0 0

( h𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑚=
˙ ( h 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) 𝑚
˙ ( h𝑖𝑛, 𝐴 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐴 + ( h𝑖𝑛 , 𝐵 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐵= ( h𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐴 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐴 + ( h𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐵 ) 𝑚
˙ 𝐵
 Heat exchangers
Case 2: Our system is the fluid in the tube. Then Q≠0 (the system is not adiabatic).

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆ ([ h+ 12 𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 ) 𝑚˙ ]=𝑄˙ − 𝑊˙
2
𝑠

0 0 0 0

( h𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝐴 −h 𝑖𝑛, 𝐴 ) 𝑚 ˙
˙ 𝐴 =𝑄
 We write the general energy balance for the heat exchanger (considering
only the fluid in the tube as our system):

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆
[( h+
1 2
2 )
𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚
]
˙ −𝑊
˙ =𝑄 ˙ 𝑠 ∆ ( h) 𝑚 ˙
˙˙ 𝑤 =𝑄

0 0 0 0
The heat that is transferred to the water is the heat that is removed from
the oil: ˙ 𝑤 =− 𝑄
𝑄 ˙ 𝑜𝑖𝑙

˙ 𝑜𝑖𝑙=∆ 𝐻 𝑜𝑖𝑙=𝑚
𝑄 ˙ 𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑐𝑝 ,𝑜𝑖𝑙 ∆ 𝑇 𝑜𝑖𝑙 ˙ 𝑜𝑖𝑙=(2)(2.2)( 40 −150)
𝑄 ˙ 𝑜𝑖𝑙=− 484 𝑘𝐽 (𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑊 )
𝑄
𝑠

We write the same equation for water:

𝑄˙𝑤 484
˙ 𝑤 =∆ 𝐻 𝑤 =𝑚
𝑄 ˙ 𝑤 𝑐 𝑝, 𝑤 ( 𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ,𝑤 −𝑇 𝑖𝑛,𝑤 ) 𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡 , 𝑤 = +𝑇 𝑖𝑛, 𝑤 = + 20=99.2 ° 𝐶
˙ 𝑤 𝑐𝑝, 𝑤
𝑚 (1.5)( 4.18)
 We write the general energy balance for the heat exchanger (considering only the fluid
in the tube as our system):

∆ ( 𝑚𝑒)𝑐𝑣
∆𝑡
+∆
[( h+
1 2
2
𝑐 + 𝑔𝑧 𝑚 )
˙ −𝑊
˙ =𝑄
]
˙ 𝑠 ∆ ( h) 𝑚 ˙
˙˙ 𝐺 =𝑄

0 0 0 0
𝑘𝐽
˙˙ 𝐺=𝑄=
∆ ( h) 𝑚 ˙ 𝑚˙ 𝐺 𝑐𝑝 ,𝐺 ∆ 𝑇 𝐺 =( 2 ) ( 2.56 ) ( 40 − 80 )=−204.8
𝑠
We write the same equation for water:
˙𝑤
𝑄
˙ 𝑤 =∆ 𝐻 𝑤 =𝑚
𝑄 ˙ 𝑤 𝑐 𝑝, 𝑤 ( 𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ,𝑤 −𝑇 𝑖𝑛,𝑤 ) ˙ 𝑤=
𝑚 =1.4 𝑘𝑔 / 𝑠
𝑐 𝑝 , 𝑤 (𝑇 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ,𝑤 −𝑇 𝑖𝑛,𝑤 )
˙ 𝑤 =− 𝑄
𝑄 ˙𝐺