Introduction

to system
Analysis and
Modeling
CHAPTER ONE
 What is a System?
System

 is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according to a plan to achieve a specific

goal.”
 A system is a collection of elements related in a way that allows a common objective to be accomplished.

System analysis

 is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to identify its objectives.

 It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and ensures that all the components of the system work

efficiently to accomplish their purpose.

 Analysis specifies what the system should do.

 It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and decomposition of a system into its

components.
Constraints of a System
A system must have three basic constraints
 A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to achieve a predefined
objective.
 Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system components.

 The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the objectives of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system, human
resources information system.
Characteristics of a System
Organization
 Organization implies structure and order.

• It is the arrangement of components that helps to achieve predetermined objectives.

Interaction
 It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.

For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with production

department and payroll with personnel department.
…Characteristics of a System
Interdependence
 Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another.

 For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together according to a specified plan.

 The output of one subsystem is the required by other subsystem as input.

Integration
 Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together.

 It means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each part performs a unique
function.
…Characteristics of a System
Central Objective

 The objective of system must be central.

 It may be real or stated.

 It is not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another.

 The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the analysis for a

successful design and conversion.

 Elements of a System
 The following diagram shows the elements of a
system −
…Elements of a System
Outputs and Inputs

 The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.

 Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.

 Output is the outcome of processing.

…Elements of a System
Processor(s)

 The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of input into output.

 It is the operational component of a system.

 Processors may modify the input either totally or partially, depending on the output specification.

 As the output specifications change, so does the processing.

 In some cases, input is also modified to enable the processor for handling the transformation.
…Elements of a System
Control

 The control element guides the system.

 It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities governing input,

processing, and output.

 The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System and software.

 In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input is needed is determined by Output

Specifications.
…Elements of a System
Feedback

• Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.

• Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the system.

• Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with information for action.
…Elements of a System
Environment

• The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates.

• It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.

• It determines how a system must function.

• For example, vendors and competitors of organization’s environment, may provide constraints that

affect the actual performance of the business.

…Elements of a System
Boundaries and Interface

• A system should be defined by its boundaries.

• Boundaries are the limits that identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it

interfaces with another system.

• Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and control.

• The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining the nature of its

interface with other systems for successful design.

Types of Systems
Systems have been classified in different ways.
 Common classifications are:

 Physical or abstract systems

 Open or closed systems

 Deterministic or probabilistic systems

 Man-made information systems

Types of Systems
Physical or Abstract Systems

 Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.

• Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature.

• For example, desks and chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are static.

• A programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and applications can change according

to the user's needs.

 Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas, representation or model of a

real system.
Types of Systems
Open or Closed Systems

 An open system must interact with its environment.

• It receives inputs from and delivers outputs to the outside of the system.

• For example, an information system which must adapt to the changing environmental conditions.

 A closed system does not interact with its environment.

• It is isolated from environmental influences.

• A completely closed system is rare in reality.

Types of Systems
Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

• Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve their performance
and to survive.
• For example, human beings, animals.

• Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment.
• For example, machines.

Permanent or Temporary System

• Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.

• Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished.
• For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the program.
Types of Systems
Deterministic or Probabilistic System

 Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between system

components is known with certainty.

• For example, two molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water.

 Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior.

• The exact output is not known.

• For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

•Social System is made up of people.

• For example, social clubs, societies.

•In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a particular
task.
• For example, Computer programming.

•Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are performed by
the machine.
• For example, an autonomous robot.
Types of Systems
Man–Made Information Systems

• It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular organization, under

Direct Management Control (DMC).

• This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for producing

information according to the need of an organization.

Types of Systems
• Man-made information systems are divided into three types −

• Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the form of memos, instructions,

etc., from top level to lower levels of management.

• Informal Information System − This is employee based system which solves the day to day work

related problems.

• Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the computer for managing business

applications.

• For example, automatic library system, highway systems, railway reservation system, airline systems, banking system, etc.
 Development methodologies
 SDLC (Software Development Life Cycle) is a process that consists of a series of planned activities to develop or alter

the Software Products

 It is a process used by the software industry to design, develop and test high quality software.

 The SDLC aims to produce a high-quality software that meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion

within times and cost estimates.

 ISO/IEC 12207 is an international standard for software life-cycle processes.

 It aims to be the standard that defines all the tasks required for developing and maintaining software.
…Development methodologies
There are various software development life cycle models defined and designed which are
followed during the software development process.
The most important and popular SDLC models followed in the industry −
• Waterfall Model
• Iterative Model
• Spiral Model
• V-Model
• Big Bang Model

Other related methodologies are Agile Model, RAD Model

 …Development methodologies

Agile Model
 is a combination of iterative and incremental process models with focus on process adaptability and customer
satisfaction by rapid delivery of working software product.
 Agile Methods break the product into small incremental builds. These builds are provided in iterations. Each
iteration typically lasts from about one to three weeks.
 This approach produces ongoing release cycles, each featuring small, incremental changes from the previous
release. At each iteration, the product is tested
 Chosen when the value of the software depreciate with time (5- 6 months)
 If it takes more than that like a year, the software has no value
 Used by People who want to go quickly and early access to the finalized software
 Developers and stockholders work collectively. The customers are also inside the team
 Since we don’t have time to document every thing , Minimum documentation is needed. More
emphasis is given on the working software with teams of high expert
…Development methodologies
Agile Model

Every iteration involves cross functional teams working simultaneously on various areas like Planning, Requirements Analysis,

Design, Coding, Unit Testing and Acceptance Testing.

At the end of the iteration, a working product is displayed to the customer and important stakeholders.

In Agile, the tasks are divided to time boxes (small time frames) to deliver specific features for a release.

Iterative approach is taken and working software build is delivered after each iteration.

Each build is incremental in terms of features; the final build holds all the features required by the customer.

The Agile thought process had started early in the software development and started becoming popular with time due to its

flexibility and adaptability.

 …Development methodologies
 Here is a graphical illustration of the Agile Model −
…Development methodologies
RAD (Rapid Application Development)

It is based on prototyping and iterative/incremental development with no specific planning involved.

 The process of writing the software itself involves the planning required for developing the product

It is a software development methodology that uses minimal planning in favor of rapid

prototyping.

 A prototype is a working model that is functionally equivalent to a component of the product.

…Development methodologies
RAD projects follow iterative and incremental model and have small teams comprising of
 developers, domain experts, customer representatives and other IT resources working progressively on their
component or prototype.

The most important aspect for this model to be successful is to make sure that the prototypes
developed are reusable.
RAD model distributes the analysis, design, build and test phases into a series of short, iterative
development cycles.
Rapid Application Development focuses on gathering customer requirements through workshops or
focus groups, early testing of the prototypes by the customer using iterative concept, reuse of the
existing prototypes (components), continuous integration and rapid delivery.
Short development cycle (2-3 months)
…Development methodologies
 The following illustration describes the RAD Model in detail.
Systems Models
Schematic Models

• A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages.

• Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and information feedback.

Flow System Models

• A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and information that hold the system

together.

• Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to abstract a real world system in

model form.
Systems Models
Static System Models

• They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity.

• The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship
Systems Models
Dynamic System Models

• Business organizations are dynamic systems.

• A dynamic model approximates the type of organization or application that analysts deal with.

• It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of −

• Inputs that enter the system

• The processor through which transformation takes place

• The program(s) required for processing

• The output(s) that result from processing.

END