Overhead Distribution System

Overhead Distribution System

Along streets, alleys, through woods, and in
backyards, many of the distribution lines that feed
customers are overhead structures. Because overhead
lines are exposed to trees and animals, to wind and
lightning, and to cars and kites, they are a critical
component in the reliability of distribution circuits.
I. Typical Construction
I. Typical Construction
I. Typical Construction
I. Typical Construction
I. Typical Construction
 For a three-phase circuit, the most common
structure is a horizontal layout with an 8- or 10-ft wood
cross-arm on a pole (see Figure 2.2).
 For a three-phase circuit, the most common
structure is a horizontal layout with an 8- or 10-ft wood
cross-arm on a pole (see Figure 2.2).
 Armless constructions are also widely found
where fiberglass insulator standoffs or post insulators
are used in a tighter configuration.
 Armless constructions are also widely found
where fiberglass insulator standoffs or post insulators
are used in a tighter configuration.

Utilities normally use 30- to 45-ft poles, set 6 to 8

ft deep. Vertical construction is also occasionally
used. Span lengths vary from 100 to 150 ft in
suburban areas to as much as 300 or 400 ft in rural
areas.
 Distribution circuits normally have an underbuilt
neutral — the neutral acts as a safety ground for
equipment and provides a return path for unbalanced
loads and for line-to-ground faults.
 Distribution circuits normally have an underbuilt
neutral — the neutral acts as a safety ground for
equipment and provides a return path for unbalanced
loads and for line-to-ground faults.

The neutral is 3 to 5 ft below the phase conductors.

Utilities in very high lightning areas may run the neutral
wire above the phase conductors to act as a shield wire.
 Distribution circuits normally have an underbuilt
neutral — the neutral acts as a safety ground for
equipment and provides a return path for unbalanced
loads and for line-to-ground faults.

The neutral is 3 to 5 ft below the phase conductors.

Utilities in very high lightning areas may run the neutral
wire above the phase conductors to act as a shield wire.

Some utilities also run the neutral on the cross arm.

Secondary circuits are often run under the primary.
 The primary and the secondary may share the neutral, or
they may each have their own neutral.

Many electric utilities share their space with other utilities;

telephone or cable television cables may run under the electric
secondary.
 Wood is the main pole material, although steel,
concrete, and fiberglass are also used. Treated wood lasts
a long time, is easy to climb and attach equipment to, and
also augments the insulation between the energized
conductors and ground.
 Wood is the main pole material, although steel,
concrete, and fiberglass are also used. Treated wood lasts
a long time, is easy to climb and attach equipment to, and
also augments the insulation between the energized
conductors and ground.

Conductors are primarily aluminum. Insulators are pin

type, post type, or suspension, either porcelain or polymer.
II. Main Components of Overhead Lines
1. Supports – poles or towers depending upon the working
voltage and the region where these are used.
2. Cross arms and Clamps – these are either of wood or steel
angle section and are used on pole structures support the
insulator and conductors.
3. Insulators – pin, strain and suspension types, as the casting
may be, for supporting the conductors and taking straight or
suspending the conductors respectively.
4. Conductors – Copper, aluminum or ACSR or of any other
composition depending upon the current to be carried and the
span of the line.
5. Guys and Strays – braces of cables are fastened to the
pole at the termination or angle poles to resist latent forces.
6. Lightning Arrestors – to discharge excessive voltage build
up upon the line, to earth due to lightning.
7. Continuous Earth Wire – is run on the top of the tower to
protect the line against lightning discharges.
8. Fuses and Isolation Switches - to isolate the parts of the
overhead systems.
9. Vee Guards – are often provided below bare overhead lines
running along or across public streets to make the line safe if it
should break.
10. Guard Wires – are provided above or below power lines
while crossing telephone or telegraph lines. The guard wire and
steel structures are solidly connected to earth.
11. Phase Plates – in order to distinguish various phases.
12. Bird Guards – a stick of ebonite with rounded top is fixed
near the insulator on the cross arm to prevent flash over due to
birds pecking on the conductors (on lines with pin insulator).
13. Danger Plate –it is provided on each pole, as a warning
measure indicating the working voltage of the line and the word
“danger”. It is provided at a height of 2.5 m from the ground
14. Barbed Wires –is wrapped on the pole at a height of 2.5m
from the ground atleast 1m.
Wooden Poles

The cheapest, easily available, provide insulating properties

and therefore, are extensively used for the distribution
purposes especially in rural electrification keeping the low
cost.(limited to 22kv and up to 60m)

Wooden poles well impregnated with creosote oil or any

preservative have a life from 25-30 years
Steel Poles

The steel poles are of three type’s tubular poles, rail poles
and rolled steel joist. The tabular poles are of round section,
rail poles are of the shape of track used for railways and
rolled steel joist are I cross section.
Possess greater mechanical strength and permit use of
longer span (50-80m) but the cost is high. Average life of this
pole is 40 years.
It is lighter in weight and easy to install thought initial cost is
little more compared to wood pole.
RCC Pole (Reinforce Cement Concrete)

Extremely used for low voltage and high voltage distribution

lines up to 33kv. One type is of square cross section from
bottom to top and the other is rectangular at the bottom and
square top with rectangular holes to facilitate insulating
properties against chemical action.

Very strong, have longer life and can be used for longer
spans (80-200m). Most suitable for water logged situations.
III. Conductor Data
 III. Conductor Data
A wire is metal drawn or rolled to long lengths, normally
understood to be a solid wire. Wires may or may not be
insulated.

A conductor is one or more wires suitable for carrying

electric current.

Often the term wire is used to mean conductor.

 Most conductors are either aluminum or copper. Utilities
use aluminum for almost all new overhead installations.

Aluminum is lighter and less expensive for a given

current-carrying capability. Copper was installed
More in the past, so significant lengths of copper are still in
service on overhead circuits.
1. All-Aluminum Conductor (AAC)

 made up of one or more strands of hard drawn aluminum alloy

 used in low, medium and high voltage overhead lines
 AAC has seen extensive use in urban areas where spans are
usually short but high conductivity as required.
 The excellent corrosion resistance of aluminum has made
AAC a conductor of choice in coastal areas
 Because of its relatively poor strength to weight ratio, AAC had
limited use in transmission lines and rural distribution because
of long spans utilized
2. All-Aluminum-Alloy Conductor (AAAC)
 made out of high strength Aluminum-Magnesium-Silicon Alloy
 are designed to get better strength to weight ratio and offer
improved electrical properties, excellent sag-tension
characteristics, and superior corrosion resistance when
compared with ACSR
 As compared to a conventional ACSR conductor, the lighter
weight, comparable strength & current carrying capacity,
lower electrical losses and superior corrosion resistance have
given AAAC a wide acceptance in the distribution and
medium & high voltage transmission lines.
 Features (AAAC)
 high strength to weight ratio
 better sag characteristics
 improved electrical properties
 excellent resistance to corrosion
3. Aluminum Conductor, Steel-reinforced (ACSR)
 consists of a central core of steel strands surrounded by
layers of aluminum strands
 Concentrically stranded conductor with one or more layers of
hard drawn aluminium wire on galvanized steel wire core.
 The core can be single wire or stranded depending on the
size. Steel core wire is available in Class A , B or Class C
galvanization for corrosion protection. Additional corrosion
protection is available through the application of grease to the
core or infusion of the completed conductor with grease.
 The proportion of steel and aluminium in an ACSR conductor
can be selected based on the mechanical strength and
current carrying capacity demanded by each application.
 are recognized for their record of economy, dependability and
favorable strength / weight ratio
 ACSR conductors combine the light weight and good
conductivity of aluminium with the high tensile strength and
ruggedness of steel.
 In line design, this can provide higher tensions, less sag, and
longer span lengths than obtainable with most other types of
overhead conductors.
4. Aluminum Conductor, Alloy-Reinforced(ACAR)

 has a central core of higher-strength aluminum surrounded

by layers of electrical-conductor-grade aluminum
 formed by concentrically stranded wires of Aluminium on
high strength Aluminium - Magnesium -Silicon(AlMgSi) alloy
core
 The number of wires of Aluminum & AlMgSi alloy depends
on the cable design.
 has got a better mechanical and electrical properties as
compared to an equivalent ACSR, AAC or AAAC
4. Aluminum Conductor, Alloy-Reinforced(ACAR)

 A very good balance between the mechanical and electrical

properties therefore makes ACAR the best choice where
the ampacity, strength and light weight are the main
consideration of the line design

 Are extensively used in overhead transmission and

distribution lines.
 Features (ACAR)
 improved strength to weight ratio
 better mechanical properties
 improved electrical characteristics
 excellent resistance to corrosion
 Copper has very low resistivity and is widely used as a
power conductor, although use as an overhead conductor
has become rare because copper is heavier and more
expensive than aluminum. It has significantly lower
resistance than aluminum by volume — a copper conductor
has equivalent ampacity (resistance) of an aluminum
conductor that is two AWG sizes larger. Copper has very
good resistance to corrosion.
 Utilities with heavy tree cover often use covered conductors
— conductors with a thin insulation covering. The covering is
not rated for full conductor line-to-ground voltage, but it is thick
enough to reduce the chance of flashover when a tree branch
falls between conductors. Covered conductor is also called tree
wire or weatherproof wire.
 Tree wire is available with a variety of covering types. The
insulation materials polyethylene, XLPE, and EPR are common.
Insulation thicknesses typically range from 30 to 150 mils (1 mil
= 0.001 in. = 0.00254 cm).
Circular Mil
Area of a circle having a diameter of 1 mil

Where A = area (cmil)

d = diameter (mil)
IV. Line Impedance
IV. Line Impedance

Overhead lines have resistance and reactance that

impedes the flow of current. These impedance values are
necessary for voltage drop, power flow, short circuit, and line-
loss calculations
RESISTANCE
The dc resistance is inversely proportional to the area of
a conductor;
Indicates the Power Loss in a Line
RESISTANCE
The dc resistance is inversely proportional to the area of
a conductor;
Indicates the Power Loss in a Line

Direct Current Resistance (R)

Variation of Resistance due to Temperature
 Variation of Resistance due to Temperature

Temperature and frequency — these change the resistance

of a conductor. A hotter conductor provides more resistance to
the flow of current. A higher frequency increases the internal
magnetic fields. Current has a difficult time flowing in the
center of a conductor at high frequency, as it is being opposed
by the magnetic field generated by current flowing on all sides
of it. Current flows more easily near the edges. This skin effect
forces the current to flow in a smaller area of the conductor.
 Resistance changes with temperature as

Where and = resistance of the conductor at temperatures

and , respectively
and = temperature in degree Celsius
T = constant of resistivity due to temperature
234.5 = annealed copper of 100% conductivity
241 = hard-drawn copper of 97.3% conductivity
228 = hard-drawn aluminum of 61% conductivity
 For a wide range of temperatures, resistance rises almost
linearly with temperature for both aluminum and copper. The
effect of temperature is simplified as a linear equation as

where
= a temperature coefficient of resistance
= 0.00404 for 61.2% IACS aluminum at 20°C
= 0.00347 for 6201-T81 aluminum alloy at 20°C
= 0.00383 for hard-drawn copper at 20°C
= 0.0036 for aluminum-clad steel at 20°C
LINE INDUCTANCE

Is the property by virtue of which a circuit opposes changes

in the value of a varying current flowing through it. The
inductance causes opposition only to varying currents.
Inductance does not cause any opposition to steady or direct
current. In case of transmission and distribution lines, the
current flowing is varying or alternating current, the effect of
inductance in addition to resistance is therefore considered.
The inductance of a conductor is,

Where

Inductance of a Single Phase Two-Wire Line

Where
 Inductance of a Composite Lines

−7 𝑫𝒎 −7 𝑫𝒏
𝑳 𝑷 =2 𝒙 10 𝒍𝒏 ; 𝑳𝑸 =2 𝒙 10 𝒍𝒏
𝑫 𝒔𝑷 𝑫 𝒔𝑸
Where

m and n are the strands of the conductors

Example 1. Find the loop inductance and reactance per km of
a single phase overhead line consisting of two conductors
each 1.25cm diameter. The spacing between conductors is 1
m and frequency is 50Hz.
Inductance of a Three Phase Overhead Lines
Inductance of a Three Phase Overhead Lines
Inductance of a Three Phase Overhead Lines

Where
𝑳=2 𝒙 10 −7
𝒍𝒏
√
3
𝒅1 𝒅2 𝒅3
𝒓′
Example 1. Determine the inductance per km of a 3 phase
overhead lines using 20 mm diameter conductors when the
conductors are situated at the corners of a triangle with spacing
of 4, 5 and 6 meters.
V. Conductor Sizing
 V. Conductor Sizing
We have an amazing variety of sizes and types of
conductors. Several electrical, mechanical, and economic
characteristics affect conductor selection:
 V. Conductor Sizing
We have an amazing variety of sizes and types of
conductors. Several electrical, mechanical, and economic
characteristics affect conductor selection:

 Ampacity — the peak current-carrying capability of a

conductor limits the current (and power) carrying capability.
 Economics — often we will use a conductor that normally
operates well below its ampacity rating. The cost of the extra
aluminum pays for itself with lower I²R losses; the conductor
runs cooler. This also leaves room for expansion.

 Mechanical strength — especially on rural lines with long

span lengths, mechanical strength plays an important role in
size and type of conductor. Stronger conductors like ACSR
are used more often. Ice and wind loadings must be
considered.
 Corrosion — while not usually a problem, corrosion
sometimes limits certain types of conductors in certain
applications.
A. Ampacity
The ampacity is the maximum designed current of a
conductor. This current carrying capacity is normally given in
amperes. A given conductor has several ampacities, depending
on its application and the assumptions used
A. Ampacity
The ampacity is the maximum designed current of a
conductor. This current carrying capacity is normally given in
amperes. A given conductor has several ampacities, depending
on its application and the assumptions used

Sun, wind, and ambient temperature change a conductor’s

ampacity. A conductor’s temperature depends on the thermal
balance of heat inputs and losses. Current driven through a
conductor’s resistance creates heat (I²R). The sun is another
source of heat into the conductor. Heat escapes from the
conductor through radiation and from convection.
Some of the main factors impacting ampacity are

 Allowable conductor temperature — Ampacity increases

significantly with higher allowed temperatures

 Ambient temperature — Ampacity increases about 1% for

each 1°C decrease in ambient temperature.

 Wind speed — Even a small wind helps cool conductors

significantly. With no wind, ampacities are significantly lower
than with a 2-ft/ sec crosswind.
 The maximum operating temperature is an important
consideration. Higher designed operating temperatures allow
higher currents. But at higher temperatures, we have a higher
risk of damage to the conductors
 The maximum operating temperature is an important
consideration. Higher designed operating temperatures allow
higher currents. But at higher temperatures, we have a higher
risk of damage to the conductors

Heating relaxes the strands — the aluminum elongates and

weakens. This damage is called annealing. As aluminum
anneals, it reverts back to its natural, softer state: fully annealed
1350 aluminum wire elongates by 30% and loses 58% of its
strength (10,000 psi vs. 24,000 psi fully hardened).
 ACSR may be loaded higher than the same size AAC
conductor. As the aluminum loses strength, the steel carries
more of the tension. The steel does not lose strength until
reaching higher temperatures.
 ACSR may be loaded higher than the same size AAC
conductor. As the aluminum loses strength, the steel carries
more of the tension. The steel does not lose strength until
reaching higher temperatures.

Covered conductors have ampacities that are close to

bare conductor ampacities. The most significant difference is
that covered conductors have less ability to withstand higher
temperatures; the insulation degrades. Polyethylene is
especially prone to damage, so it should not be operated above
75°C. EPR and XLPE may be operated up to 90°C.
Neutral Conductor Sizing

The neutral conductor carries less current than the phase

conductors, utilities can use smaller neutral conductors. On
three-phase circuits with balanced loading, the neutral carries
almost no current.

On single-phase circuits with a multi grounded neutral,

the neutral normally carries 40 to 60% of the current (the earth
carries the remainder).
 On single-phase circuits, some utilities use fully rated
neutrals, where the neutral and the phase are the same size.
Some use reduced neutrals.

The resistance of the neutral should be no more than twice

the resistance of the phase conductor, and we are safer with a
resistance less than 1.5 times the phase conductor, which is a
conductivity or cross-sectional area of 2/3 the phase conductor.
 Common practice is to drop one to three gage sizes for
the neutral: a 4/0 phase has a 2/0 neutral, or a 1/0 phase has a
number 2 neutral. Dropping three gage sizes doubles the
resistance. On three-phase circuits, most utilities use reduced
neutrals, dropping the area to about 25 to 70% of the phase
conductor (and multiplying the resistance by 1.4 to 4)
Several other factors besides ampacity play a role in how
small neutral conductors are:
Several other factors besides ampacity play a role in how
small neutral conductors are:
 Grounding — a reduced neutral increases the overvoltages on
the unfaulted phases during single line-to-ground faults. It also
increases stray voltages.

 Faults — a reduced neutral reduces the fault current for single

lineto- ground faults, which makes it more difficult to detect faults
at far distances. Also, the reduced neutral is subjected to the
same fault current as the phase, so impacts on burning down the
neutral should be considered for smaller neutrals.
 Secondary — if the primary and secondary neutral are
shared, the neutral must handle the primary and secondary
unbalanced current (and have the mechanical strength to
hold up the secondary phase conductors in triplex or
quadraplex construction).

 Mechanical — on longer spans, the sag of the neutral should

coordinate with the sag of the phases and the minimum
ground clearances to ensure that spacing rules are not
violated.
Secondaries

Utilities most commonly install triplex secondaries for

overhead service to single-phase customers, where two
insulated phase conductors are wrapped around the neutral.
The neutral supports the weight of the conductors. Phase
conductors are normally all-aluminum, and the neutral is all-
aluminum, aluminum-alloy, or ACSR, depending on strength
needs.
 Insulation is normally polyethylene, high-molecular weight
polyethylene, or cross-linked polyethylene with thickness
ranging from 30 to 80 mils (1.1 to 2 mm) rated for 600 V.
Similarly for three-phase customers, quadraplex has three
insulated phase conductors wrapped around a bare neutral.
 Triplex secondary ampacities depend on the
temperature capability of the insulation. Polyethylene can
operate up to 75°C. Cross-linked polyethylene and EPR can
operate higher, up to 90°C. Table 2.18 shows ampacities for
triplex when operated to each of these maximum
temperatures.

Quadraplex has ampacities that are 10 to 15% less than

triplex of the same size conductor. Ampacities for open-wire
secondary are the same as that for bare primary conductors.
VI. Fault Withstand Capability
VI. Fault Withstand Capability

When a distribution line short circuits, very large currents

can flow for a short time until a fuse or breaker or other
interrupter breaks the circuit. One important aspect of
overcurrent protection is to ensure that the fault arc and fault
currents do not cause further, possibly more permanent,
damage. The two main considerations are:
 Conductor annealing — from the substation to the fault
location, all conductors in the fault-current path must
withstand the heat generated by the short-circuit current. If
the relaying or fuse does not clear the fault in time, the
conductor anneals and loses strength.

 Burndowns — right at the fault location, the hot fault arc

can burn the conductor. If a circuit interrupter does not clear
the fault in time, the arc will melt the conductor until it breaks
apart.
 For both annealing and arcing damage, we should design
protection to clear faults before more damage is done. To do
this, make sure that the time current characteristics of the relay
or fuse are faster than the time-current damage characteristics.
A. Conductor annealing

During high currents from faults, conductors can withstand

significant temperatures for a few seconds without losing
strength. For all-aluminum conductors, assuming a maximum
temperature of 340°C during faults is common
B. Burndowns

Fault-current arcs can damage overhead conductors. The arc

itself generates tremendous heat, and where an arc attaches to a
conductor, it can weaken or burn conductor strands. On distribution
circuits,
Two problem areas stand out:

[Link] conductor — Covered conductor (also called tree

wire or weatherproof wire) holds an arc stationary. Because
the arc cannot move, burndowns happen faster than with
bare conductors.

[Link] bare wire on the mains — Small bare wire (less than
2/0) is also susceptible to wire burndowns, especially if
laterals are not fused.
 Covered conductors are widely used to limit tree faults.
Several utilities have had burndowns of covered conductor
circuits when the instantaneous trip was not used or was
improperly applied.

A covered conductor is susceptible to burndowns because

when a fault current arc develops, the covering prevents the arc
from moving. The heat from the arc is what causes the damage.
Conductor damage is a function of the duration of the fault and
the current magnitude.
If covered conductor is used, consider the following options to
limit burndowns:
If covered conductor is used, consider the following options to
limit burndowns:
 Fuse saving — using a fuse blowing scheme can increase
burndowns because the fault duration is much longer on the time-
delay relay elements than on the instantaneous element. With
fuse saving, the instantaneous relay element trips the circuit faster
and reduces conductor damage.
 Arc protective devices (APDs) — these sacrificial masses of metal
attach to the ends where the covering is stripped (Lee et al.,
1980). The arc end attaches to the mass of metal, which has a
large enough volume to withstand much more arcing than the
conductor itself.
 Fuse all taps — leaving smaller covered conductors
unprotected is a sure way of burning down conductors.

 Tighter fusing — not all fuses protect some of the conductor

sizes used on taps. Faster fuses reduce the chance of
burndowns.

 Bigger conductors — bigger conductors take longer to burn

down. Doubling the conductor cross sectional area
approximately doubles the time it takes to burn the conductor
down.
Larger bare conductors are fairly immune to burndown.
Smaller conductors used on taps are normally safe if
protected by a fuse. The solutions for small bare conductor
are
Larger bare conductors are fairly immune to burndown.
Smaller conductors used on taps are normally safe if
protected by a fuse. The solutions for small bare conductor
are

 Fuse all taps — this is the best option.

 Fuse saving — the time-delay relay element may not protect
smaller tap conductors. Faults cleared by an instantaneous
element with fuse saving will not damage bare conductor. If
fuse blowing is used, consider an alternative such as a high-
set instantaneous or a delayed instantaneous.