TRENDS OF AGRICULTURE

Module 1:

The history of Agriculture is very much linked with the historical development of man. Agriculture evolved
in order to make food readily available for man. Such development stages involved;

A. Hunting and Gathering

*This is the earliest stage in the development of agriculture. It is characterized by:
*Nomadic life, moving from one place to another in search of food.
*Hunting and gathering, where man hunted wild animals such as hare, antelopes and also *collected wild
fruits, vegetables, eggs of birds.
*Man used simple weapons like bows and arrows to hunt wild game.
*Man studied behavior of animals and plants.
*The human population size was very low.

Impact of Hunting and Gathering on the Environment

-Depletion of wild animals i.e. most targeted animals.
-Depletion of some plants species which were edible (e.g.) roots plants.
-Nomadic life style allowed regeneration of vegetation around mans temporary settlements
B. Domestication

This ensured that plant food was produced close to where people lived. It is characterised by;
- Taming of wild animals and wild plants. (That is rearing of animals and
growing of crops.)
- This marked the beginning of food production. (Production of animals and
plants.)
- At this stage man used some simple tools such as wooden and iron tools.
- First plants to be domesticated were cereals e.g. Wheat, sorghum and
Animals included horses, sheep and goats, cattle, pigs.

-Basic tools such as sharp stones and sticks were used to grow their food.

Impact of Domestication on the Environment

- Areas around settlements were cleared for cultivation making it prone to soil erosion.
- Soil nutrients were depleted due to cultivation, cropping and grazing by animals.
- Patches of land were left bare
- Ecosystem disturbed (creation of micro climate.)
-Deforestation as trees were cleared to prepare fields
C. Shifting Cultivation

This is the third stage in the development of agriculture. It was characterised by;
- Farming land for a number of years and often moves from one area to another when nutrients are
finished.
- Used lands were left bare to recover (fallow)
- This system was practiced where the land was plenty.
- Livestock was moved from one area to another in search of pasture and water.
-
Impact of Shifting Cultivation on the Environment
- Soil nutrients were depleted.
- Soil erosion occurred in fallow areas.
- Bush encroachment resulted due to overgrazing by animals around settlements.
- Trees were cut down to give space for cultivation.
- Deforestation caused extinction of certain species of plants and animals because of destruction of
their habitats.
- Shifting to a new piece of land gave the initial one a chance to regain fertility.
D. Settled agriculture

- This is the period when people established permanent homes to carry out their farming activities.
- This stage was a result of conflicts during shifting cultivation stage when people were fighting for fertile
lands.
- Production was mainly for subsistence purposes to feed families.

Impact of Settled Agriculture on the Environment

- Big areas of land were cleared for cultivation.

- Soil erosion took place due to exposure of the soil to agents of soil erosion.
- Poor infertile soil resulted due to continuous crop cultivation.
- More plants were destroyed for fencing kraals and lands e.g. bush fences.
- Rearing of many livestock in the same land led to: overgrazing, soil erosion, build up of livestock parasites and
build up of animal diseases.
E. Commercial Farming

It is a large-scale agricultural production involving growing crops on a large field and rearing
livestock mainly for sale. It is characterised by;
- use of heavy machinery
- Use of inorganic fertilizers e.g. NPK.
- Use of pesticides to control pests and diseases.
- Large areas of land were cleared for cultivation.

Impact of Commercial Farming on the Environment

- Pollution of environment due to fertilizers and chemicals used.

- Soil structure was destroyed due to heavy machinery used.
- Plenty of trees destroyed to give way to cultivation.
- Population increase due to enough food supply.
- Depletion of underground water due to continuous irrigation.
- Soil erosion due to bush clearing.
- Desertification.
- Endangering (extinction) of wild animals and fruits.
- Introduction of new plants and animal species.
- Loss of habitats for animals
 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND THEIR INFLUENCE IN AGRICULTURE

THEY INCLUDE; Temperature, Wind, Humidity, Light, Photoperiod, Rainfall and Frost

1. TEMPERATURE

This is defined as the degree of hotness or coldness. Temperature affects both animals and plant growth.

(a) Effect of Temperature on Plant Growth

- High temperature increases the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to wilting of plants.

- High temperature affect (reduce) the rate of seed germination.
- High temperature reduces the activities of soil microbes, thus slow the decomposition of organic matter in the soil.
- Optimum temperature may favour the development of plant diseases (e.g. fungal diseases and pests.
- Low temperature reduces the rate of evapotranspiration.
- Low temperature may reduce the rate of photosynthesis and plant growth.
- Low temperature may also reduce the enzymatic process in plants.
(b) Effect of Temperature on Animal Growth
- High temperature reduces animal production e.g. egg production is reduced due to heat stress.
- Food conversion rate is reduced when the temperature is low.
- High temperature reduces the rate of feeding as animals spend most time under shades.
- Warm conditions favour the development of livestock diseases.
- Very low or very high temp can cause death to animals.

How to Modify the Effect of Temperature on plants

-Use of net shade

-Use of greenhouse to grow plants.
-Mulching of crops.
- Watering plants to cool the soil.
-Pruning to reduce the effect of high temperature.
-Add organic manure to reduce the effect of low temperature
-Cultivate the soil to reduce the effect of high temperature

How to modify the effects of temperature on animals

- Increase ventilation to reduce the effect of high temp
- Housing animals in roofed houses to provide shade to reduce effect of high temperature
- Spraying animals with water during hot days.
-Provide heaters to warm the animals in cold weather.
-Provide water for drinking to reduce effect of high temperature
2. WIND

Wind is defined as air in motion or moving air particles.

(a) Effect of Wind on Plant Growth

 Strong winds affect plant in the following ways;

- It increases the rate of transpiration in plants leading to wilting of plants.
- It spread plant diseases from a one field to another (disease transmission).
- It spread plant pests to unaffected areas.
- Breaking down of crops (lodging).
- It spread weed seeds to weeds free fields.
- It causes soil erosion thus leaving plants with no nutrients (agent of soil erosion).
- Spreads veld fires during the dry season, destroying grazing land.

 Wind can also help plants by;

- Pollinating some plants (cross pollination)
- Lowering temperature by evaporating water from plant surface.
- Seed dispersal.
(b) Effect of Wind on Animals.
- Spread airborne diseases to animals
- It cools animal body by drying up sweat from their bodies.
- Wind causes drought conditions for animals.
- It can destroy livestock houses
- Rain-bearing winds bring rain to some livestock shelters.

How to modifying the effect Of Wind on plants.

- Planting windbreakers in and around the fields to reduce wind speed.
- Mulch the soil to stop wind erosion.
- Planting crops in greenhouse.
- Support plants with weak stems
- Maintain a good vegetative cover.
- Frequent watering of the soil

How to modify the effect of wind on livestock

- Housing animals in a walled house (half wall)
- Provide livestock houses with eaves of sufficient length to prevent wind-driven rain from entering.
3. HUMIDITY

This is the amount of moisture in the atmosphere (air).

(A) Effect of Humidity on Plant

 High humidity encourages the multiplication of fungal diseases of plants.

 High humidity reduces the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to less absorption of nutrients by plants.
 High humidity help plants during flowering e.g. maize plant require humid and warm conditions, thus maize
flowers do not dry up.
 Low Humidity speed up the rate of evapo-transpiration leading to plant wilting.
 Low humidity facilitates drying up of agricultural products e.g. cereal grains.

(B) Effect of Humidity on Animals.

- High humidity cause poor feathering in chickens.

- High humidity encourages development of diseases.
- High humidity encourages multiplication of pathogens and pests.
- Low humidity causes irritation of mucous membrane in farm animals.
- Optimum humidity is essential for hatching of bird eggs.
How to modify the effect of Humidity on plants

- Proper spacing in plants to allow air movement.

- Use of extractor fan in green house.
- Use of humidifiers in greenhouse.
- Increase spacing in crops to allow the circulation of air between plants.
- Mulching to keep the soil moist

How to modify the effect of humidity on animals

- Proper ventilation for housed animals.

4. LIGHT

Light is a source of energy for all living things on earth.

(a) Effect of Light on Plants

-High light intensity increases rate of photosynthesis.
- Indoors plants need low intensity light.
- Photoperiod affect plants by influencing flowering, fruiting and bulbing
in some crops.
-Long periods of light encourage germination of some seeds
- Low intensity light makes some seedlings become tall, pale and etiolated.

Ways of Modifying the Effect Light on plants.

 Use greenhouse to reduce light intensity.
 Use net shade to reduce light intensity.
 Prune plants to increase light intensity.
 Increasing spacing in plants to increase light intensity.

Ways of modifying the effect of light on plants.

- Side shading to control long day.
- Provision of artificial light
5. PHOTOPERIOD (Light Duration)

This is the number of hours an organism is exposed to light. Photoperiodism is the response of
plants to length of day light. Plants can be classified as either;
(1) Long-day plant
(2) Short-day plant
(3) Day Neutral

 Long-day plant- are plants which require longer period of exposure to light and shorter
period of darkness to flower e.g. wheat, spinach, onion and lettuce
 Short-day plant- requires shorter hours of exposure to light and longer period of darkness
for them to flower e.g. beans, rice and tobacco.
 Day-neutral plants- These are plants that are insensitive to photo period or plants that
flower in either long or short day e.g. cotton, tomato, tropical onion.
(a) Effect of Photoperiod on Plants

- It influences flowering and fruiting in plants.

- Influences bulbing in bulb crops and tuberisation in some plants.
- More photosynthates are made when there is longer day.
- Colouration of stem and leaves

Ways of modifying the effects of photoperiod on plants

- Artificial lighting, day length can be increased by use of artificial lighting.

- Light proof covers for plants; this can be used to reduce day length.
- Use of day – neutral plants since they are insensitive to changes in day length so farmers should
use specially bred cultivars that are day neutral for crops that are usually long day or short day.

(b) Effect of Photoperiod on Animals

- It influences the process of egg formation in layers.

- It reduces food intake in broilers when exposed to shorter day length.
- Influences breeding in sheep and goats in autumn
- Loosing of feathers in poultry

Ways of Modifying the Effect of Photoperiod on animals.

 Providing electricity to housed animals to increase light duration.
6. RAINFALL

This is referred to as falling precipitated water from the atmosphere. Precipitated water can be in the
form of hailstones, snows or fog.

(a) Effect of rainfall on crops

- Heavy rainfall causes floods which may uproot crops.

- Heavy rainfall washes away soil resulting in soil erosion.
-Too much rainfall may results in water logging and floods.
- High rainfall intensity may lead to leaching of nutrients as it allows seepage of Water down below
the root zone.
- Lack of rainfall lead to stunted growth of plants.
- Lack of rainfall lead to lower production of crops.
- Hailstone rainfall causes physical destruction of leaves.
- Hailstones also lower the soil temperature causing damage to root cells.
- Transmit water borne diseases.
- Encourage growth of weeds.
Ways of Modifying the Effect of Rainfall on crops

- Irrigation of crops in case of low or no rainfall.

- Add organic matter to the soil to improve water holding capacity.
- Harvest rainwater to be used during dry period
-
(b) Effect of Rainfall to Animals

- Heavy rainfall may cause floods that may result in animals drowning.
- Promote positive growth, thus enough fodder for animals.
- Drought (lack of rainfall) leads to poor grazing pastures and starvation and
death of animals.
-Provide drinking water for animal.

Ways of modifying the effect of rainfall on animals

- Providing roofed house to protect animals from rainfall.

- Preserve fodder for use in dry season.
-Develop livestock type that is drought resistant
- Rain harvesting for watering livestock and irrigating pasture during dry season or when rainfall is insufficient.
7. FROST

This is a very cold condition when the temperature is below freezing point.

(a) Effect of frost on Crops.

-cause freezing of plant cells and tissues

- Prolonged frost can kill plants.
- Slows down growth.
- Reduce water uptake by plants.
- Reduce microbial activity in the soil.
- Cold condition break seed dormancy for some plant i.e. stratification in peach.
-Encourage flowering in some plant species i.e. vernalization in apple.

Ways of Modifying Frost on plants.

-Use of greenhouse / Nurseries.

-Misting plants at the base plants.
- Mulching
-Taking pot plants inside the house during the night
-Plant crops under the cover of trees.
-make fires around orchards raises the local temperatures.
(b) Effect of Frost on Animals

- Can kill animals especially young ones due to frostbite.

- Slow animal’s growth.
- Reduce production in animals
- Food intake by animals increases when temperature are low.

Ways of Modifying Frost on animals.

-Housing animals during the night.

-Provide proper housing which is well designed and constructed
-Provide artificial heaters to raise temperature for the comfort of the livestock.
WATER CYCLE (Hydrological Cycle)

Diagram
Water cycle is the movement of water from the ground to the atmosphere
and back to the ground. Water cycle is a solar driven cycle of evapo -
transpiration, condensation, precipitation and run off.

Water cycle depends on all environmental factors. The following are reflected to as elements of
water cycle;

 Evaporation
 Transpiration
 Respiration
 Condensation(Clouds formation)
 Precipitation(Rain, Snow, hailstorm)
 Run off
 Infiltration
 Percolation
 Interception
EVAPORATION
The heat from the sun causes evaporation of water from the wet ground and water bodies such as lakes, rivers,
dams and rises into the atmosphere as water vapour.
TRANSPIRATION
Plants lose water through their leaves via the stomata by transpiration and animals breathe out water vapour which
goes into the atmosphere.
CONDENSATION
Above the condensation line, water vapour cools down/ condenses to form clouds and return to the earth surface as
precipitation.
PRECIPITATION
When clouds become too heavy returns to the earth as precipitation, it can be in a solid or liquid state.
PERCOLATION (Seepage)
Much of the water that reaches the ground evaporates quickly while some infiltrates the ground.
RUNOFF
Water, which does not enter into the soil or evaporate, runs across the land into form o streams or rivers, which runs
into lakes, pans and sea.
RECHARGING OF GROUND WATER SUPPLIES
Some of the seepage water moves beyond the root zone and replaces supplies of underground water.
INTERCEPTION
Some water through precipitation fall on buildings trees and then evaporates back to the atmosphere before it
reaches the ground.
 LAND TENURE SYSTEM

Land tenure is the ownership and use of land.

Types of land tenure systems are;

 Freehold land tenure system ( occupies 6% of Botswana)
 Communal ( occupies 71% of Botswana land)
 State land (occupies 23% of Botswana land)

(a) Freehold Land Tenure System;

 This is the private ownership of land where the owner has a Title Deed and the right to use and occupy the
land the way he thinks will benefit him profitably.
 Individual owner can be a company, a church, an association or syndicate of persons.
 The owner has exclusive right to use or dispose of land as, and to whom one wishes, as long as one acts
within the law.
 This land is designated farming blocks of Tati, Tuli, Gaborone, Lobatse, Molopo and Ghanzi.
 The owner or owner’s lawyer or estate agent administers the use and transfer of the land.
 The land can be inherited (that is, it can be passed from parents to children without Government
interference.
Leasehold under freehold land tenure
 Freehold land system can be leased (rented to tenant farmers who pay rent in turn). This land will be regarded as
leasehold land system. N.B. Leasehold is the renting of land by the owner (Landlord) to tenant (a lessee) for a specified
period of time.
 Rights and obligations to the land of either party are usually clearly spelt out in the agreement.
 The tenant usually pays rent monthly or annually, depending on the agreement.

Advantages of Freeland Tenure system

 Land can be used as security to obtain loans from banks (mortgageable).
 The owner has best security of tenure and Permanents developments can be made in the land
 Land can be inherited by next of kin.
 Land can be sold or bought like any other commodity.
 Land benefits the owner since land can be leased and be a regular source of income for the owner.
 Land can be reclaimed if need arises.

Disadvantages of Freehold Land Tenure System

 Land may be misused by the owner.
 Valuable agricultural land may lie idle if that is the wish of the owner.
 Land can be concentrated in the hands of rich non-citizen.
 Landlords may charge very high rents, thus exploiting the tenants.
 Most land may not be developed due to lack of funds.
 Individuals may control large areas of land while other people have no land to farm.
(b) Communal Land Tenure System (71% of Batswana)

 This is the ownership of land by the community as a whole and not just one individual.
 Tribal land board with the authority from the tribal land act of 1968 allocates the communal land to
eligible members.
 Members of the community are allocated land free for residential, grazing and arable production.
 Inheritance: land rights are easily passed on from one generation to the next.

Leasehold under communal land tenure system

 Leasehold is a form of tenure where an agreement (lease) is made between a landlord (lessor) and a
tenant or farmer (lessee) who pays rent to the land lord for an agreed period of time.
 The landboard can grant common law leases to individuals or group of individuals on land for
commercial, industrial and residential purposes.

Examples of common law leases include:

A) 50-year common law lease over 6400 ha TGLP ranches.
B) 15-year common law leases on arable land for commercial farming.
C) 99-year common law leases on mortgageable residential plots for citizens only.
 Advantages of Communal Land tenure System

 Land is allocated free of charge.

 Land rights are easily passed on from one generation to the next.
 One can keep as many livestock as possible.
 There is security of tenure for landholders.
 Customary land rights are perpetual and do not lapse with passage of time.
 Each member of the community benefits from the land.

Disadvantages of Communal Land tenure System

 Land can not be used as security at the bank except for common law lease holders.
 Not easy to introduce better farming systems.
 Difficult to improve pasture or range conditions.
 It is difficult to control pests and diseases.
 Range degradation is common
 Breeding cannot be controlled.
 Land may be misused as some lazy farmers or inexperienced farmers have equal opportunity as
experienced ones.
State Land Tenure System

-This is the ownership of land by the state (government). Most of these lands are used as game
reserves and national parks and residential areas in urban areas.
- State land is found in both rural and urban areas.
- The following all fall under state control: urban centers, national parks and game reserves, forest
reserves and public institutions such as public schools and institutions.

Leasehold under state land tenure system.

 The state may grant leases to individuals and institutions for residential, commercial and industrial
purposes.
 There are two types of leasehold in urban centers, namely:
-The deed of fixed period of state grant (FPSG)
-The certificate of right (COR)

Inheritance: This land can not be inherited as it is government property.

Advantages of State Land Ownership

 Individuals may be allowed to use the land.

 The land is reserved for future use.
 Ensures orderly development in urban areas.
 Ensures protection and preservation of national parks, game reserves, rangelands and sites of historical
importance.
 Ensures that land is distributed equitably among Botswana citizens

Disadvantages of State Land Ownership

 Some fertile land is reserved for wild animals.

 Not easy to farm near game reserves as wild animals usually attack domesticated animals and crops.
 Permanent developments cannot be made.
 The land cannot be used as security to obtain a loan from a financial institution such as a bank.
LAND CAPABILITY CLASSIFICATION

Land is classified according to the most suitable sustained use that can be made of it while providing for adequate
protection from erosion or other means of deterioration. There are eight classes of land based on the United States
Department of Agriculture (USDA) land capability classification.

Class I is the least susceptible to erosion and Class VIII is the most susceptible.
CLASS CHARACTERISTICS USE
I -The soils are deep, Crop production/arable farming.
-Well drained and of good texture.
- Slopes of less than 2%.
-Less danger of soil capping and
erosion
II -Crop production/ arable farming
- Slope may be more than 2% than
- Moderate erosion
- Inadequate soil depth
- Lacks one or more features of
class I
III -Slope 5-8% -Crop production/arable farming
-High erosion hazards
-Very slow water permeability
IV -Slope 8-12% -Pasture/range
- Low water holding capacity -woodland
-Very shallow soils -wild life
-Poor drainage -Crop production with soil
conservation measures
V -Wetlands, swamps, rocky soils, - Rice cultivation, vegetable
ponded areas and stoney soils production on raised seedbeds
- Generally not suited for cultivation

VI -Slope 12-20%, shallow soils, rocks, - Grazing, tree planting ; woodland;

very severe erosion susceptibility, wildlife
poor drainage, low water holding
capacity
VII Slope greater than 20%/ very steep -woodland, wildlife,grazing
slope, very shallow soils
VIII -Shallow soils, infertile soils, rocky -Recreation/wildlife, Of no
AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGY
Technology refers to tool and machines, methods and techniques, processes and power that man uses to extend his capacity to produce materials
objects.

Agriculture technology can be defined as tools and machines, methods and techniques, processes, materials and power that
man uses to produce food, fiber and other agro-products. Agriculture technology can also refer to the means and ways man
uses to produce food and fiber.
Examples of Agricultural technology are listed below.
Examples Of Agriculture Technology
Technology Aspect Example
Tool and Machines Garden tools, Plough, tractor, Planter, burdizzor, Harvesters,
Cultivators, Branding iron, Milking machine.

Methods and Techniques Hydroponics, Crop rotation, Drip irrigation, budding and grafting,
Hybridization, Artificial insemination, Embryo transfer, Vaccination,
Crossbreeding, Castration, Dehorning, Genetic engineering, Pruning
Greenhouse etc.

Processes Milling, Milk processing, Fermentation, Water purification, Biogas

production, Food preservation, Vaccination development.

Materials Fertilizers, pesticides, frozen semen and embryos herbicides,

Vaccines, enzymes, hormones, microbial inoculants, drugs and
medicines, seeds, improved breeding stock and crops..

Power Solar power, wind power, animal power, water power, combination
engine, electric power.
Technology Transfer

It means movement of technology or technologies from one place to another. Technology transfers include;
(1) From one country to another.
(2) From one region/ continent to another.
(3) From one person to another.

Use of farming system as a technology transfer approach

It involves development of relevant/ improved technology through on-farm research/ involves developing technology
with the farmers/farmer oriented approach, develop technology which meets farmers needs, After technology has been
developed it is tried through field days, farmers come together to try this technology. Technology is then adopted if it is
relevant.