Construction Technology One

Walling systems
• Walls are the vertical elements of a building
which enclose the space within it and which
may also divide that space.
Types of walls
May broadly be divided into two:
Load-bearing walls – support loads from floors
and roofs in addition to their own weight and
resist side pressure from wind and some from
stored materials within the building.
Non-load bearing walls – these carry no floor or
roof loads.
• The external non – load bearing wall, related
to a framed structure is termed a panel wall if
of masonry construction.
• If the same is of lighter construction it is
termed an infill panel, or cladding when
applied to the face of the frame.
• The term partition is applied to walls, either
load-bearing or non-load bearing, dividing the
space within a building into rooms.
• Internal walls which separate different occupants
within the same building are called separating walls.
• A party wall means a wall separating adjoining
buildings belonging to different owners or occupied
by different persons.
• May or may not be load bearing.
• Primary function - to prevent the spread of fire
between adjoining buildings and to provide an
adequate degree of sound insulation.
• Retaining walls – primary function is to support the
thrust of soils and, perhaps underground water on
one side of the wall.
Functional Requirements
In order to satisfy its functions efficiently, it must
satisfy certain requirements which are:
• Strength and stability
• Thermal insulation
• Sound insulation
• Exclusion of wind and rain
• Durability
• Fire resistance
• Damp penetration resistance.
Strength and Stability
• Strength measured in terms of resistance to
stresses set up in it by its own weight,
superimposed loads and lateral pressure.
• Stability measured in terms of resistance to
overturning by lateral forces and buckling
caused by excessive slenderness.
• Sufficient thickness.
• Thickness-to-height ratio – buckling.
• Adequate lateral support to resist overturning.
Resistance to Dampness
• Damp penetration - deterioration to the structure,
damage to finishes and contents and can in severe
cases adversely affect the health of occupants.
• Dampness may enter the building through a
number of routes:
 Water introduced during construction
 Penetration through roofs, parapets and chimneys – if
not properly constructed.
 Penetration through walls – those exposed to wet winds
 Ground water moisture – at or near the base creeping
up by capillary action.
Thermal Insulation
Thermal insulation serves a number of purposes
• To prevent excessive loss or gain of heat within a
building.
• To prevent a large condensation.
• To reduce expansion and contraction of the structure.
• The external walls of a building, together with the roof,
must provide a barrier to the passage of heat to the
external air in order to maintain satisfactory internal
conditions without a wasteful use of a heating system.
• Adequate thermal insulation is attained in a variety of
ways incorporating cavities and materials with high
insulating value.
Sound insulation
• A function (more pronounced) of party walls and
walls between habitable rooms of a dwelling –
airborne sound.
• As with thermal insulation however, an adequate
degree of sound insulation can be attained only
with an excessive thickness and weight of solid
wall.
• Sounds in buildings - impact sounds caused by
direct contact with the structure such as footsteps
or hammering on walls, or they can be airborne
such as from conversation, radio, etc.
Weather resistance

Rain penetration through walls can be resisted by:

• ensuring a limited penetration only into the wall
thickness. In this instance water will be absorbed by a
permeable walling material and held outer sponge
surface until dry weather conditions permit it to
evaporate.
• preventing any penetration whatsoever through an
impermeable facing which will force water to run down
the will face without entering the wall thickness.
• interrupting the capillary path through the wall.
Fire resistance
• A wall should inhibiting the spread of flames and
preventing the excessive transfer of heat from one
side to the other.
• In case of fire, the wall should not disintegrate but
continue to bear its load and to enclose space as long
as is required in order to preserve the building, its
occupants and its neighbours.
• Walls compartmentalise a building so that fire is
confined to a given area to separate specific fire risks
within the building, to form safe escape routes for the
occupants and to prevent the spread of fire between
buildings.
Solid masonry
wall
 115mm, 230mm,
345mm, etc thick
walls
SOLID CONCRETE
WALLS
• Common with
modern structures.
• Very strong and
durable but expensive.
• The wall erection
needs formwork to
form and maintain
shape.
Cavity Walls
• consists of two separate walls, (leaves or
skins), of brickwork having a space between
them (cavity) and connected together by
metal ties.
• the inner leaf can be of concrete blocks,
combining the insulation properties of
concrete blocks with weather resistant
properties of brick.
• the double wall is about 280mm thick and the
width of the cavity varies from 50 to 75mm
• connected by metal wall ties. These must be strong
enough to develop mutual stiffness in the leaves
• Each of these ties is formed with a drip at the
centre which prevents water passing across.
• spacing - not exceeding 900mm horizontally and
450mm vertically and staggered to form a diamond
pattern .
• At the sides of all door and window openings -
spaced at 300mm vertically, no more than 150mm
from the side of the opening.
• Wherever possible the roof load should be
distributed to both leaves of a cavity.
• base of cavity is filled with fine concrete, the
top being at least 150mm below the level of
the damp proof course (dpc) - precaution
against moisture rising above the dpc.
• every third vertical joint in the outer leaf at
the base left open.
• The risk of mortar droppings forming a bridge
at the base of the cavity is minimised by
extension of the cavity below the horizontal
dpc.
Advantages
• able to withstand a driving rain in all situations from
penetrating to the inner surface.
• good thermal insulation - building warm in winter and cool in
summer.
• no need for external rendering
• enables use of cheaper and alternative materials for the inner
construction.
• a nominal 280mm cavity wall has a higher sound insulation
value than a standard one brick thick wall.
Disadvantages
• requires a high standard of design and workmanship.
• the need to include a vertical dpc to all openings.
• slightly dearer in cost than a standard one brick wall.
Cross Wall Construction
• form of construction where load bearing walls are
placed at right angles to the lateral axis of the
building, the front and rear walls being essentially
non-load bearing cladding.
• Suitable up to 5 storeys high where the floors are
similar and where internal separating or party walls
are required such as in blocks of flats or maisonettes.
• spaced at regular or regularly repeating intervals
along the building so that a limited number of floor
spans can be standardised in terms of thickness,
reinforcement and formwork.
• intermediate floors span longitudinally
between the cross walls providing the
necessary lateral restraint.
• if both walls and floors are of cast in-situ
reinforced concrete the series of boxes - box-
frame construction.
• junctions between the non-load bearing
cladding and the cross walls should be water
tight.
• If pitched roofed with the ridge parallel to the
lateral axis - edge beam required.
Advantages of Cross Wall Construction
• Load bearing and non-load bearing components can
be standardised and in some cases prefabricated -
shorter construction time.
• The external non-load bearing walls (or cladding),
may be designed with greater freedom in choice of
materials and finish.
• Simplicity of construction – walls consist of unbroken
runs of brick or block work or in-situ concrete.
• Projecting beams and columns are eliminated.
• Fenestration between cross walls unrestricted
structurally.
Materials for Construction of Walls
Bricks
• These include commons, facings, engineering,
purpose made and any other types of bricks that
may be available in the market.
• Local standard brick size is 230 (L) x 115 (W) x 75
(H) mm
• Other countries its 215 (L) x 102,5 (W) x 65 (H)
mm
Brick Bonding
• refers to the systematic arrangement of bricks in a
wall following a pattern that will enable the load
to be distributed evenly, ensuring stability and
appearance of the wall.

Common bond types include the following:

• Stretcher bond – consist of alternate courses of
stretchers. Used for half brick walls.
English bond – consists of alternate courses of
headers and stretchers. Very strong bond, though
monotonous in appearance.
English garden wall bond – consists of alternate
courses of 3-5 stretchers and one course of
headers.
Flemish bond – consist of alternate header and
stretcher in every course. Offers an attractive
appearance and is reasonably strong.
Advantages of bricks as a walling material
• Brick is relatively cheap
• Very good fire resistance
• If well built it does not deteriorate structurally
and requires very little maintenance over a very
long period of time.
• Bricks varying in size, weight, texture and colour
can be produced at comparatively low cost.
Disadvantages
• Due to relatively small size of bricks, the wall
takes more time to build than blocks.
• Brick shapes and sizes are sometimes irregular.
• Delivery of bricks to work sites often posses
problems (breakages, damaged arrisis and
chipped surfaces)
Blocks
Advantages of block work over brickwork
• Higher thermal insulation properties
• Low density
• Faster construction
Disadvantages
• Lower strength
• Less resistant to rain penetration
• Less load bearing properties.
Metal Sheet
• Used as a walling material particularly in
temporary structures such as sheds, stores and
building site offices.
• It is very easy to erect but keeps the building
relatively hot and cold in summer and winter
respectively.
Timber
• Timber in the form of plywood is widely used for
partitioning buildings.
• It also serves as infill panels to framed
structures.
• Timber is fairly cheap but needs to be treated
properly with preservatives to prevent damage
by insects, fungi and moisture.
Stone
• It is one of the oldest walling materials known to
man.
• Today stone more often serves as a decorative
walling material because of its high cost and is
used along with bricks, concrete or blocks.
 Question
a. Using sketches, describe the construction
process of 4 types of partitioning walls
b. What are the pros and cons of using such
walls in a building?